Comprehensive U.S. Government and Politics Key Concepts

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units.

Dual federalism

A model of federalism where the state and federal governments operate independently in their own areas of jurisdiction.

Cooperative federalism

A model of federalism where the national and state governments work together to solve problems.

Fiscal federalism

The financial relationship between different levels of government, particularly regarding taxation and spending.

Block grants

Federal funds provided to state or local governments for broad purposes, allowing for more flexibility in how the money is spent.

Unfunded mandate

A regulation or policy imposed by the federal government on state or local governments without providing federal funds to support it.

Categorical grants

Federal funds provided to state or local governments for specific purposes, with strict limitations on how the funds may be used.

Devolution

The transfer of powers and responsibilities from the federal government to state or local governments.

Federalist #10

An essay by James Madison arguing that a large republic can best control factions and prevent tyranny.

Participatory democracy

A model of democracy that emphasizes broad participation of constituents in the direction and operation of political systems.

Pluralist democracy

A model of democracy in which multiple groups compete for power and influence in the political process.

Elite democracy

A model of democracy where a small number of elites hold power and make decisions on behalf of the larger population.

Separation of powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another.

Checks and balances

A system that ensures that no one branch of government becomes too powerful by providing each branch with some measure of influence over the others.

Exclusive Powers

Powers that are reserved solely for the federal government or state governments.

Concurrent Powers

Powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments.

Shay's Rebellion

An armed uprising in 1786-1787 by farmers in Massachusetts protesting economic injustices and the lack of government response.

Great Compromise

An agreement during the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate.

Necessary and proper clause (elastic clause)

A clause in the Constitution that grants Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for carrying out the enumerated list of powers.

Full faith and credit clause

A clause in the Constitution requiring states to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.

Rule of Law

The principle that all individuals and institutions are accountable to the law that is fairly applied and enforced.

Supremacy clause

A clause in the Constitution stating that federal law takes precedence over state law.

Casework

The assistance provided by congressional members to constituents in their dealings with government agencies.

Oversight

The review and supervision of federal agencies, programs, activities, and policy implementation by Congress.

Motion for cloture

A procedure used in the Senate to end a filibuster and bring a bill to a vote.

Incumbent

An individual currently holding a political office.

Logrolling

The practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics, by reciprocal voting for each other's proposed legislation.

Reapportionment

The process of redistributing seats in the House of Representatives based on population changes.

House Ways and Means Committee

A committee in the House of Representatives that is responsible for taxation and revenue-raising measures.

Conference committee

A temporary committee formed to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill.

Standing committee

A permanent committee in Congress that meets regularly to consider legislation.

Inherent powers

Powers that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are necessary for the government to function.

White House staff

A group of advisors and assistants to the President of the United States.

Executive order

A directive issued by the President to manage the operations of the federal government.

Executive agreement

An international agreement made by the President without ratification by the Senate.

Pocket veto

A special type of veto that occurs when the President does not sign a bill into law within ten days and Congress adjourns.

Signing Statements

Written comments issued by the President when signing a bill into law, often outlining their interpretation of the law.

Patronage System

A system in which political parties provide government jobs and services to their supporters.

Lame duck period

The time between an election and the inauguration of a new officeholder, during which the incumbent may have reduced power.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

A division of the Executive Office of the President that assists in the preparation of the federal budget.

National Security Council

A committee in the Executive Office of the President that advises on national security and foreign policy.

Civil Service System/Merit System reform

A system that aims to ensure that government employment is based on merit rather than political affiliation.

Amicus curiae

A legal term meaning 'friend of the court,' referring to someone who is not a party to a case but offers information or expertise.

Stare decisis

The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent.

Original intent

The theory of constitutional interpretation that focuses on the intentions of the framers of the Constitution.

Demographic

Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.

Political socialization

The process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values.

Political culture

The set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments that shape the political behavior of a group.

Political efficacy

The belief that one's actions can influence the political process.

Gender gap

The difference in political opinions or behaviors between men and women.

Marriage gap

The difference in political opinions or behaviors between married and unmarried individuals.

Sampling error

The error that arises from taking a sample rather than the whole population.

Exit polls

Surveys conducted with voters immediately after they have exited the polling stations.

Public opinion polls

Surveys that measure the public's views on various issues or policies.

Issue Network (Iron Triangle)

The stable, mutually beneficial relationship between interest groups, government agencies, and congressional committees.

Party polarization

The increasing ideological distance between political parties.

Lobbying

The act of attempting to influence the decisions of government officials, often legislators.

Grassroots lobbying

A form of lobbying that seeks to influence lawmakers by mobilizing the general public.

Astroturf lobbying

A form of lobbying that is designed to look like grassroots support but is actually orchestrated by organizations.

Single-member districts

Electoral districts that elect one representative.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system in which parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive.

Gerrymandering

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one party over another.

Party line voting

Voting in which a majority of members of a political party vote the same way.

Divided government

A situation in which one party controls the presidency while another party controls one or both houses of Congress.

General elections

Elections held to choose among candidates for office.

Midterm elections

Elections held halfway through a president's term, typically for congressional seats.

Political parties

Organizations that seek to gain political power by electing candidates to public office.

Interest groups

Organizations of people who share common objectives and actively seek to influence public policy.

Incumbency advantage

The electoral edge afforded to those already in office.

Judicial review

The power of courts to assess whether a law is in compliance with the Constitution.

Judicial activism

The philosophy that courts should take an active role in policy-making and constitutional interpretation.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review.

Litigation

The process of taking legal action.

Entitlement programs

Government programs that provide benefits to individuals who meet certain eligibility criteria.

Mandatory Spending

Expenditures that are required by law, such as Social Security and Medicare.

Monetary Policy

The process by which the central bank manages the money supply and interest rates.

Fiscal policy

Government policy regarding taxation and spending to influence the economy.

Supply Side Economics

An economic theory that advocates reducing taxes and decreasing regulation to stimulate economic growth.

Keynesian Economics

An economic theory that advocates for increased government expenditures and lower taxes to stimulate demand.

Civil Rights

The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality.

Selective incorporation

The process by which the Bill of Rights is applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.

Suffrage

The right to vote in political elections.

Affirmative Action

Policies that seek to improve opportunities for historically marginalized groups.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing individual liberties.

Free exercise clause

The section of the First Amendment that protects individuals' rights to practice their religion.

Establishment Clause

The section of the First Amendment that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion.

Exclusionary rule

A legal principle that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in a criminal trial.

Defamation

The act of damaging someone's reputation by making false statements.

Equal protection

The principle that individuals must be treated equally under the law.

Due process

The legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights owed to a person.

Party Caucus

A meeting of members of a political party to discuss policy and select candidates.

Linkage Institutions

Structures within society that connect the people to the government, such as political parties, interest groups, and the media.

Policy agenda

The set of issues that are prioritized by policymakers.

Agenda setting

The process by which certain issues are prioritized and brought to public attention.

Closed primary

A primary election in which only registered party members can vote.

Independent expenditures

Spending by individuals or groups that is not coordinated with a candidate's campaign.

Open primary

A primary election in which voters can choose on the day of the primary which party's primary to participate in.

PAC (Political Action Committee)

An organization that raises and spends money to elect or defeat political candidates.

Political ideology

A set of beliefs about politics and government.