BIS 2A EXAM 2

reducing agent

the one with electrons in the reactant side giving electrons to the product

the compound that gets reduced

the product that gains electrons

redox

high electronegativity = more likely to be reduced and low electronegativity = tendency to be oxidized

if delta E is pos

delta g is neg and spontaneous and exergonic

NADH

carries 2 electrons and 1 proton plus one associated proton, the form when NAD+ is reduced

Metabolism

the addition of any chemical reaction that is happening in your body

the precursor that is common in the metabolism in all organisms

glucose

allosteric enzyme

other shape (non-competitive inhibition)

Statins

chemicals which are completive inhibitors, they’re going for the same active site that you have in your enzymes in the formation of cholesterol

ends in -ase

an enzyme

cellular respiration

1. cytoplasm: glycolysis,

2. Mitochondria Matrix: Citric acid cycle

3. Cristae and interspace membrane: oxidative phosphorylation

glycolysis

everything is going to happen in the cytoplasm

for the first part of obtention of energy

you don’t need a mitochondria

every time you consume food it’s broken apart into glucose and then part of that glucose will build into ATP

because you can’t storage ATP since it will explode

glucose transporters

glucose has an electrical charge so you need transporters one that is called Facilitated diffusion( not using energy)- glucose transporters (GLUTs) through uniporters and. another through symporters Sodium glucose link transporters (SGLTs) which moves glucose inside cells and goes against the gradient concentration which requieres energy

thioester bond (high-energy covalent bond)

through cysteine (sulfur and hydrogen) and histidine (carbon and nitrogen ring) will be formed nitrogen and hydrogen will form a hydrogen bond and a substrate will attach to sulfur creating the thioester bond the formation is going to be an endergonic reaction

Enzymes just change for the transformation of the substrate

once that happens enzyme goes back to its original shape and you can reduce that enzyme

forming pools

NAD pool is going to pick up electrons that are produced from that fragmentation of your food and these electrons are going to reduce this molecule which will transform into NADH (you are moving energy)

pyruvate

molecule with only 3 carbons so when you produce it through glycolysis you split the glycogen molecule into 2

if it has pyruvate and no mitochondria

it can use electrons to produce lactate (a waste of that chemical reaction)

lactic acid

through lactate bacteria growing in a system with no oxygen and using sugar as their nutrient source, (anaerobic)

fermentation

happens in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) - alcohol and CO2 the goal of fermentation is to produce ATP -

coenzyme -A

sulfhydryl group (HS-N H) vitamin B5 and a nucleotide

NADH

has 2 electron (H and H sticking out of nicotinamide ring) and +H (proton)

NAD+

has + charge on N ( nicotinamide ring) has no H sticking out go it

decarboxylation

taking out one carbon (carbon dioxide) because once you don't have more energy to extract from a molecule that is going to become waste or a byproduct

inside the inner membrane - matrix

the place where the citric acid cycle happens (Krebs and tricarboxylic acid cycle), receptor is oxaloacetate which has 4 carbons, acetyl givens 2 carbons to another molecule making it citric acid which has 6 carbons

The Cytochrome C reductase complex helps

pump protons and because you are pushing these protons in the intermembrane space (not outsdide the mitochondria instead in between the inner and outer membrane) and as a result your re creating a gradient of concentration

Electron Transport Chain

is aerobic we need oxygen to have the last receptor for electrons to form water and to start with that gradient of concentration of protons

ATP synthase complex

has a specific channel for portions to exit, the protons are going to use that gradient concentration fore every proton that you’re putting in back is going to propel the energy to transform ADP and ATP and then you’re going to have one ATP channel protein that is going to permit the exit of that molecule

the flow of energy

Glucose —— NADH/FADH2———- ETC —— chemiosmosis —— ATP

Irreversible reactions

are those with a large negative delta G meaning that they’re highly energetically favorable and proceed overwhelmingly in the forward direction (products) under cellular conditions

allosteric part of an enzyme

any other place for bonding for different molecules of the active site will be an allosteric site

if you have low ATP the reaction will happen faster and if you have high ATP the reaction will be slower

because you don’t want to create unnecessary energy because you don’t have somewhere to put it

difference between fermentation and respiration

when talking about the Krebs cycle and ETC we need a last receptor for electrons which will be oxygen for us but in fermentation (bacteria archaea or fungus) they’re going to be able to produce lactic acid or ethanol as waste doesn’t use oxygen as the last receptor for electrons

chlorophyll a has

2 different wavelengths where it is going to be effective (430 and 680)

Bacteria have all the cytochromes in the membrane

they’re going to have a space between the membrane and the cell wall to prepare the gradient of concentration for protons and from there going from glycolysis to the electron transport chain to chemiosmosis and to produce more energy

oxidative phosphorylation

is not exclusive for eukaryotic organisms

the only primary pigment that we have

chlorophyll A (any other pigment is considered secondary), they’re hydrophobic because they have a long chain of lipids

anoxygenic photosynthesis

produce photosynthesis but they’re not going to release oxygen into the atmosphere, they use light to transform matter but don’t produce oxygen

cellular respiration and glycolysis is for

every organism including the photosynthetic ones

photosynthetic infrastructure of plants

presence of chloroplast which has a double membrane and their own DNA, contains stroma which is the empty spaces in-between the stacks (which will be full of water, salts, and ions ) has the thylakoid (the individual disks) which contain the pigments for photosynthesis (a stack is a granum which are all going to be interconnected)

stomata

valve-like pores found in leaves which allow CO2 in for photosynthesis and releases oxygen, but when it opens evaporation of water is happening (dehydration)

photosynthesis only happens in the

visible spectrum everything that you can see which they use this light to excite electrons through the chloroplasts

NADP+ (P is for phosphate)

is an electron carrier, requires a terminal electron acceptor

NADPH (P is for phosphate)

take electrons to build bigger molecules using CO2

photosystems

have a reaction center which has primary pigments ( two chlorophyll A) around that you will have an antenna complex which is a group of different pigments that can have a variation depending on the plant (secondary pigments) then it concentrates a particular light that is going to have enough energy to generate the movement of electrons (you need a bunch of helpers that can work with diff wavelengths) once they have that energy they pas to chlorophyll A which will be in charge

lumen of your thylakoid

is where that split of water is going to form a boron gradient

ATP runs the cell in virtually every aspect of metabolism

if this cycle is not fast enough which could cause a deficit in ATP and a surplus of NADPH which means you can’t transfer electrons because the only way to do it is using NADPH+ and you don’t have any more so you fix using the Z-scheme

Z-scheme

is linear because it’s not coming back, it’s starting and ending, is light-dependent, they require photosystem 1 and 2, water is necessary (because electrons are coming from there) and produces ATP, oxygen and NADPH

Cyclic photophosphorylation

happens only in photosystem 1 is an anaerobic process meaning it doesn’t need or produce oxygen and doesn’t produce NADPH, instead goes back in the electrons transport chain where they can travel using cytochromes and int eh process produce more ATP doesn’t use new electrons just is re-excited linear and cyclic process happens together

light independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

do not happen in the dark they just don’t need light to work happens in the stroma

light dependent reactions happen in

the thylakoid

G3P

produces glucose and it can have other derivatives such as fatty acid and amino acid

cellular respiration happens in

the mitochondria

carbon and oxygen in glucose is going to come

from CO2 part of that oxygen from CO2 is going to form water and other part of water product is going to come from water reactant. O2 product comes from water reactant

an irreversible reaction from G6P

is going to produce pentose phosphate pathway which is another opportunity to form CO2, NADPH and form nucleotides which are needed to create DNA,RNA and ATP the formation of nucleotides following procedures aren’t irreversible done when you have enough ATP (so it goes through the PPP - pentose phosphate pathway instead of glycolysis)

NADPH donate electrons in anabolic pathways

form fatty acid synthesis, steroid hormone synthesis, and cholesterol synthesis which is important for your liver, kidneys, gonads(testis,ovaries) and mammary glands

glycolysis precursors

glucose-6-P, glyceraldehyde 3-phophate, phosphoenolpyruvate, fructose -6phosphate, 3-phosphoglycerate, pyruvate

pentose phosphate pathway precursors

ribose-5phosphate, erythorose-4 phosphate

linking glycolysis and CAC precursor

Acetyl-Co-A

CAC (citric acid cycle ) precursor

a-Ketoglutarate, oxaloacetate, succinyl-CoA

DNA

double helix (two strands) and has 4 bases (cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine) and is going to use the sugar deoxyribose

RNA

has only one strand and four bases (cytosine, guanine, adenine, and uracil with nitrogen ) and the sugar used is going to be ribose

pyrimidine ring

have only one ring in sugars (cytosine, uracil, and thymine)

purine ring

two rings together (guanine and adenine)