Urbanisation, urban forms their social/economic issues

Urbanisation

An increase in the proportion of a population living within urban areas

Causes of urbanisation

- Rural-urban migration

- natural increase

- governmental policies (e.g. China's special enterprise zones)

Suburbanisation

The outward growth of towns and cities into surrounding rural villages.

Reasons for suburbanisation

improved transport, open areas, quieter, less polluted, working from home, less crime, cheaper housing

Urban Resurgence/ reurbanisation

The movement of people back into an area previously in decline

Counter Urbanisation

An increase in the proportion of a population living within rural areas, due to migration from urban to rural regions.

Megacity

A city with a total population of over 10 million.

Metacity

A city with more than 20 million people

World City

A city that provides economical and financial importance (e.g. London, New York and Tokyo). They typically hold the headquarters of TNCs

Deindustrialisation

A reduction in industrial capacity, leading to social and economic change within a region

Dereliction

The loss of industry or productivity of a land, leaving it abandoned

Push factors

Factors that induce people to leave old residences. e.g. poverty, famine, war, poor services/infrastructure.

Pull factors

Factors that induce people to move to a new location e.g. housing, healthcare, jobs and education

Urban Sprawl

the process of urban areas expanding outwards

greenbelts

rings of open space where houses may not be built

What is needed to support the flow of economic activity?

- production

- trade, transport and business

- migration

- political decision making

Urban morphology

The layout of a city, its physical form and structure.

Central Business District

The centre of a city, containing a high density of businesses and TNC headquarters

Land use zones in cities

- central business districts

- green areas

- out of town shopping centres

- inner city

- informal settlements

- industrial areas

Models of urban structure

- concentric zone (burgess) -> business in middle, wealthier as you move further from middle

- hoyt model (hoyt) -> areas splt into sections around CBD

Example of deindustrialisation

- manchester, hulme (1980) cotton mills closed and moved abroad

- landscape became derelict -> negative impact on environment

- social deprivation in manchester (lower QOL and standard of living)

- death of 5 year old after falling from 3rd story crecsent

New urban landscapes

- town centre mixed developments

- cultural and heritage quarters

- fortress developments

- edge cities

- gentrified areas

town centre mixed development

Cities that are encouraged to develop functions other than the mainstream sector, preventing travel (e.g. areas with attractions, leisure facilities, accessible public spaces, residential areas and cultural events)

benefits of town centre mixed developments

social:

- good quality of life (health)

- more inclusive space (accessible)

- builds community

economic:

- attracts businesses and boosts economy

environmental:

- increased greenspaces

- less travel, less emissions

limitations of town centre mixed developments

- traffic could be redirected

- could force people out of an area

- requires constant maintenance

example of a mixed use town centre

barnet

- widened high street pavements and planted trees

- shopping centre (the spires)

- residential area

cultural and heritage quarters

areas with great cultural/heritage importance that can function as leisure spaces as well as an attraction for tourists

benefits of cultural/heritage quarters

- protects cultural identity

- attracts tourist, economic benefit

- builds communities, character and reduces exclusion

challenges from cultural/heritage quarters

- stereotyping

- rising property value -> displacement

- overcrowding

- environment (waste, noise, transport)

example of cultural and heritage quarters

china town (soho), west end

- represents east and southeastern asian communities

- architecture (red lanterns, lion statues)

- festivals (new year)

- language (services in mandarin/cantonese and english)

fortress developments

areas within a city that use walls, guarded entrances and security firms to defend spaces

advantages of fortress developments

- enhanced security and safety (less vandalism and crime)

- can attract high value properties

disadvantages of fortress developments

- creates physical and social barriers between groups

examples of fortress developments

- gated residential areas

- shopping centres (with security)

e.g. canary wharf, London

gated entry points, extensive CCTV, security guards

gentrified areas

An area that has been regenerated by individual people or groups of people and gaining more investment

positives of gentrification

- more services and businesses in the area (employment)

- increased tax for local authority

- improved local environment

- investment in local area

- revitalises neglected areas

- reduces crime

negatives of gentrification

- displaces lower income groups

- threat to existing communities

- tension between new and old residents

example of gentrification

shoreditch, east london

- previously industrial/working class/warehouses

- cheap rent attracted artists and students in 1990s

- attracted shops, cafes, bars and clubs

- now filled with street art, tech startups and luxury flats with upscale coffee shops

- by 2000, original residents have been priced out

- by 2010, more investment occured with chain shops moving in

- increased house prices by 25% in the last 5 years

edge cities

modern suburban areas that act as an alternative central business district on the outskirts of a city

positives of edge cities

- attracts businesses, job opportunities

- reduces congestion (and therfore congestion) in the inner city

-brings employment to outer areas

- more investment in the outer area

negatives of edge cities

- increased car dependancy

- contributes to urban sprawl

- could decline inner cities

- lack of identity, feeling 'placeless' with chain stores domination

example of an edge city

croydon (south london)

- major retail centre outside central london

- large concentration of office buildings

- several shopping centres

modern cities

areas built for function (e.g. chicago)

post-modern city characteristics

- high tech corridors

- mix of building styles

- dominated by quaternary and tertiary services

- spatial fragments rather than homogenised sectors

- highly diverse culture and ethnicity

- public and private patnerships

example of post-modern western city

las vegas

why is las vegas a post modern western city

- over the top consumerism of american architecture

- local governments work with private corporations to accomodate millions of yearly toursits

- fragmented form

- only 46% white

urban policy

Strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems.

parties

- conservtive (1979 - 1997)

- labour (1997-2010)

- conservative (2010 to 2024)

- labour (2024-present)

policies over time

1950s - post-war reconstruction of towns/cities, mainly national/local governments

1960s - suburban growth, decline of inner city (deindustrialisation)

1970s - growing private sector

- 1980 and 1990s - private sector grown, more community involvement

urban development corporations

ensured effective use of lands with social and housing facilities in neglected areas

e.g. London docklands (built 24,000 new homes and created 85,000 jobs)

enterprise zones

specific areas of land given economic incentives (tax breaks, government support)

government grants

enticed private investors to develop and regenerate urban areas

Social Clustering

Groups of people with similar backgrounds frequently living together.

socio-economic issues

- economic inequality

- social segregation

- cultural diversity

economic inequality

unequal distribution of income in an area

social segregation

seperation of social groups (based on class, ethnicity or income)

cultural diversity

the state of having a variety of cultures in the same area

Example - cost of living crisis (2.75 million more people falling into poverty)

Solution: London living wage (employers opt in for £3 more above minimum wage)

advantages

- helps low income workers afford essentials

- firms seen as more ethical

disadvantages

- voluntary opt in

- doesnt solve other issues (housing unaffordability, energy costs)

Example - housing crisis (23,000 social-rented homes were demolished)

Solution: £4.8 billion to secure 116,000 affordable homes by 2022 and London Living rent (helps londoners save for deposit on house)

- more affordable for low incomes

- unrealistic, not always achieved

- limited supply of housing

- designed more for middle class (not lower)