geog urban issues and challenges

urbanisation definition

increase of proportion of people living in towns and cities. occurred first in HICs and now more in LICs.

pull and push factors - migrating to urban areas

pull factors:

• better healthcare

• better jobs, more job opportunities

• better education

• better living standards (access to goods + services)

• social connections eg moving closer to family or friends

push factors:

• farming issues (primary rural income source) eg droughts, insufficient land causing job problems

• resource scarcity - limited access to water, food etc

• natural disasters, conflicts

• economic pressure

megacity

city with over 10 mil inhabitants, including London, Lagos, Tokyo etc. most are in NEEs especially in Asia.

importance of lagos

largest and most economically important city in Nigeria, in the southwest on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. population estimates place it between 17 and 21 million

regional: provides most of the jobs in Nigeria, and many migrate there seeking work. also has better healthcare and education (though still not good)

national: holds 10% of the country’s population, generates 30% of its GDP and holds 80% of its industry, has 80% of imports and 70% of exports. many transnational corporations have Nigerian headquarters in Lagos

international: financial centre of west Africa, and 80% of flights in the region go into there. has one of the highest living standards, has the largest ICT market of the continent etc

growth of Lagos

population growth is primarily driven by migration, due to lack of opportunities and essentials (food, water, education, healthcare) out of the city and high concentration of them within. also high rate of natural increase from the young population

growth of lagos has driven up Nigeria’s life expectancy and caused an overall positive effect on the country

opportunities in Lagos

• better access to healthcare and education - 9 years mandatory education from the lagos state government

• better access to resources - better water supply, with better piping and wells, and improved access to electricity.

• thriving seaport and airport allow strong imports and exports.

• ijeka and agbara industrial estates hold many industries including food, textiles and pharmacy.

• sharp rise in tertiary industry, slight rise in secondary, relatively sharp decrease in primary over time.

• informal economy allows tax breaks and includes scavenging in dumps, shoe shining and the like. it allows the unemployed to get enough money to afford necessities

challenges in lagos

• inequality - rich/poor divide worsened by urbanisation, and over 60% of Lagos lives in squatter settlements like Makoko, working in the informal economy for as little as ~£1/day.

• access to essential services:

  • limited access to clean water and energy is a major problem. 10% of the city has piped water, the rest using vendors, wells or boreholes (all unreliable and often carriers of disease).

  • energy is limited, with those able to afford it relying on backup generators and blackouts being common.

  • healthcare is limited and never free. most doctors leave to better-paying countries.

  • education is offered up to age 9 but is difficult to get beyond this point, often needing to be paid for. children often have to work for money

• poor building + infrastructure quality - sewers often fail, causing sewage to enter boreholes, wells, rivers and the lagoon.

• unemployment and crime - around 10%, without benefits, with around 40% in the informal sector. this drives crime rates and gangs, recruiting children and teens and committing low level crimes like selling drugs or thievery.

• waste disposal - 10 000 tonnes produced daily, of which around 4 000 is collected, of which around 13% is recycled.

• pollution is often at around 5x the recommended limit, often from vehicles and diesel generators. this also contributes to traffic - on average, commuters spend ~3 hours/day in traffic, and 60% of vehicles are unregistered. the fatal accident rate is triple that of most European countries

squatter settlements - Makoko

people living on unowned land, offering basic shelter for those unable to afford homes. often made from scrap material. Makoko is an example of these.

cramped conditions and limited access to essentials causes high susceptibility to disease (particularly waterborne) and high rates of spread.

large parts of makoko are built on water, and the services are poor but improving, including the beginnings of piped water, and the floating school providing trade, jobs and education. it also collects rainwater, which is cleaner than average

lagos strategic transport master plan

• integrated transport system linking rail, road and waterways (ferries)

• dedicated bus lanes, improved roads

• mixed use land development to reduce need for commuting

• new airport

• improved cycle paths and pavements

future challenges in lagos

• expected population growth worsening above access issues in future, and subsequent density doing the same.

• rising sea level destroying low-lying settlements

UK population spread

heavily urbanised, with around 82% living in urban areas

highly varying density, from around 5 000/km² (London) to <10/km² (northern Scotland) averaging at 260.

generally shaped around resources (low in difficult-to-build areas, those lacking in resources or farmland etc and high in places with fossil fuels, good ports, low-lying flat land etc)

London - location and importance

southwest UK on the Thames.

population at around 10 million, spans around 3km²

in control of a major port, making it a major trade centre. also a transport hub for the UK. generates around 22% of the UK’s GDP, represents 1/3 of higher education institutions and 1/5 of the student population nationally.

many major company HQs are in London, it has strong global air connections and it is the first national park city due to its urban greening programme.

London population structure

young population - many people migrate for work. contributes to growing population. highly culturally diverse, with less than half of the city being white British (though cultures do often clump together).

rapid population growth causes pressure on services.

opportunities in London - Shoreditch

cultural mix, recreational and entertainment opportunities.

began ran-down due to deindustrialisation, prompting immigration which led to a diverse population in the area. opportunities in the creative sector formed the silicon roundabout, with investments from major tech companies such as Facebook, google and Microsoft.

high concentration of pubs, bars and cafes, with graffiti and street art decorating the walls. diverse shops offer food and goods, and there are many live music venues and celebrations.

opportunities in London - the Docklands

declined as ships grew too large for the docks themselves, causing deindustrialisation as industries could no longer rely on them.

new industries grew from the formation of the London Docklands Development Corporation attracting private investment in the area. it offers employment in management, law, accounting and similar areas

opportunities in London - the Crossrail

network of travel including the underground’s Elizabeth line added as part of the scheme, the Oyster card as a multipurpose travel card for the city, congestion charging zones charging for driving during rush hour and bike sharing schemes (bikes for hire around the city, sometimes free).

reduces congestion, improves public transport usage and brings associated benefits (greener, reduced air pollution etc), decreases travel time, enabling more people to travel, boosting property value around stations, enhancing accessibility

crossrail itself was the Elizabeth line but the whole thing is notable

opportunities in London - urban greening

many parks in central London, including Hyde Park as well as smaller parks scattered around the city. suburbs offer more green space. green space accounts for around half of the city itself

benefits include air purification/quality increase, reducing flooding risk, providing homes for wildlife, provides area for exercise and food production etc.

feeding birds is encouraged, as is keeping gardens in good shape.

challenges in London - urban deprivation + inequality

over 2 000 000 people suffer from poverty in London. life expectancy and people on out-of-work benefits vary across the city with lower life expectancies correlating with struggles for employment. areas such as newham have unemployment rates at almost 10%, and around 40% of children having grades below 5

challenges in London - dereliction and building

shortage of homes in London due to rapid population growth unbalanced by new houses. this drives homelessness and overcrowding (~170 000 homeless, half of the country’s homeless).

homes are built on Greenfield sites often due to reduced cost (no necessary clearance) however this comes with consequences (urban sprawl increase, unlikely to restore this land, loss of habitat and/or agricultural land)

homes are sometimes built on brownfield sites, but this is more expensive. problems include costs from demolition and decontamination, benefits include reducing urban sprawl and less need for cars, and can improve the environment

urban sprawl causes mass destruction of Greenfield sites as houses are built due to rising population. it is considered strongly negative yet happens as to cut costs

greenwich peninsula aims to develop 150 acres of brownfield land to reduce urban sprawl. the O2 was a part of this. total costs hit £8.4 billion.

challenges in London - pollution

4 000 deaths/year from extended exposure to air pollution. much of London exceeds safe limits, especially with NO₂ (primarily from cars). cycle highways introduced to reduce cars on the road to combat this

around ¼ of London’s waste is sent to landfill, and around 30% is recycled. most of the rest is burnt for electricity generation

London case study - Stratford

selected for regeneration as the 2012 Olympic Games were to be held there. previously highly contaminated with lots of dereliction and unemployment, with poor quality houses. hit by the shutdown of the docks, and suffered poor overall health and education rates

land was purchased from its original owners despite backlash, and contamination was removed, 110 acres brownfield was reclaimed, electricity cables were buried, waterways and railways connected by bridges. old buildings were demolished, overhead cables were removed.

new sports venues were constructed, including the olympic stadium. olympics media centre set up, employing 5 000. queen Elizabeth olympic park set up, with habitats and tourist attractions. athlete’s village converted into residential accommodation, and the international quarter (high rise office) employed 25 000.

generated £9 billion, and employment rates increased, causing a positive multiplier effect. total cost was £8.7 billion, £5 billion over budget.

the park is heavy with cycle and walking paths, and has bike hire points. homes in the park are designed to minimise water loss, and the scheme aims to protect green areas and habitats including wetlands and meadows. 99% of the parkland’s waste is recycled and recycling is encouraged in homes. usage of water is around 50% of typical, and energy is down by around 30%. however the redevelopment released 3.3 million tonnes of CO₂ and meant wildlife had to be relocated

10 000 new homes will be built by 2030, 40% of which are affordable and 3 000 are the athlete’s village. a new school with a size of 1 800 pupils was constructed. the aquatics centre, parks and the velodrome are open to the public, and a new bus station has been set up as well as ties to the Elizabeth line. many of the homes are high-density and are built to minimise energy and water loss, and many have green roofs.