Principles of Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Vocabulary-based flashcards derived from lecture notes on classical and operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules, and behaviorism.

Learning

An experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process discovered by Ivan Pavlov in 1906 where a neutral stimulus eventually triggers a response after being paired with another stimulus.

UR and CR

The Unconditioned Response and Conditioned Response, which are the same response triggered by different events; the difference lies in whether conditioning was necessary for the response to occur.

NS and CS

The Neutral Stimulus and Conditioned Stimulus, which are the same stimulus; the difference is whether it triggers the conditioned response.

Second-order conditioning

A form of conditioning where a new neutral stimulus (e.g., a square) starts to elicit a response because it predicts an already established conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell).

Extinction (Classical)

The elimination of a learned response that occurs if the Conditioned Stimulus is repeatedly presented without the Unconditioned Stimulus.

Generalization

The elicitation of the same response by stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus (e.g., different bell tones).

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli, such as a dog showing less salivation to a different bell tone.

John B. Watson

The father of behaviorism who conducted the Little Albert Experiment and claimed that complex reactions like fear can be conditioned.

Preparedness

An organism’s evolutionary history that makes it easier to learn particular associations, such as associating illness with food rather than lights or sounds.

Conditioned taste aversions

Associations between food and illness that usually result from a single pairing and can occur even with hours between eating and sickness.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning associated with B.F. Skinner in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences.

Edward Thorndike's law of effect

A principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while those followed by negative consequences become less likely.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a favorable consequence to increase a behavior (e.g., getting a cookie for eating vegetables).

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unfavorable consequence to increase a behavior (e.g., lowering insurance rates for safe driving).

Positive Punishment

Adding an unfavorable consequence to decrease a behavior (e.g., getting a ticket for speeding).

Negative Punishment

Removing a favorable consequence to decrease a behavior (e.g., no video games because of rudeness).

Shaping

The process of gradually modifying an animal’s behavior through a series of successive approximations of the target behavior.

Intermittent reinforcement

A schedule where behaviors are reinforced only some of the time, causing them to resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement.

Fixed Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after a given amount of time or a specific number of responses.

Variable Schedule

An unpredictable reinforcement schedule where reinforcement occurs after an average amount of time or an average number of responses.

Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule based on the passage of time.

Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule based on the number of behaviors or the ratio of responses to reinforcements.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

A schedule where reward is given after a certain number of behaviors (e.g., a bonus for every $5$ cars sold).

Variable Ratio (VR)

A schedule where reward is given after an average number of behaviors (e.g., slot machines); this schedule is the most resistant to extinction.

Fixed Interval (FI)

A schedule where reward is given after a certain amount of time (e.g., a paycheck every $2$ weeks).

Variable Interval (VI)

A schedule where reward is given after an average amount of time (e.g., receiving an email response).

Nucleus accumbens

A brain structure that is activated during the processing of rewards.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter released when a behavior is rewarded for the first time.