The Rise and Rule of the Single Party State in Germany 1918 – 1945: HITLER and the Nazis

Germany before 1871

There were many German states, unified by 1871 under Prussian leadership as Germany.

The New German State

The new German state was seen as a threat by Britain and France as it was very powerful in terms of both industrial might and military strength.

By 1914, Germany was at war with UK, France and Russia (and later USA)

Germany before the end of WW1

Before the end of WW1 there was a revolution in Germany, and a new system of government emerged; parliamentary democracy, and Germany became a republic.

The Treaty of Versailles

Germany lost WW1 and was blamed for starting it and was forced to pay reparations under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty caused great resentment in Germany, and many on the right used the treaty to undermine the new socialist government.

The start of the Weimar Republic

It got off to a bad start with the Treaty of Versailles. The early years (1919-23) saw many putsches and communist uprisings

The economy in the Weimar Republic

After an economic collapse in 1923 (Hyperinflation caused by resistance to the French occupation of the Ruhr), there was a recovery with outside help (the Dawes plan, money from USA).

The economy remained relatively stable till 1929 (Wall street Crash) as did the political situation.

Impact of the great depression on Weimar Germany

The Great depression led to a rise in votes for parties opposed to the system (Nazis on the Right, KPD on the left).

The parties committed to the system couldn't make a workable government (no agreement on how to deal with the economy.

The last years of Weimar Germany (1930-33)

The parties committed to the system couldn't agree on how to deal with the economy after the Great Depression. Instead of working out an agreement, they allowed the President (Hindenburg) to rule by decree; in practice this meant he chose the government and signed their laws without them having to pass through parliament

The Presidential Chancellors (1930 -1933)

Brüning: 1930 - 1932; Von Papen: June - December 1932 Von Schleicher: December 1932-January 1933 Hitler: January-March 1933 (He then won an election and became an elected chancellor)

Chancellor Brüning

In power from 1930 - 1932. He failed to revive the German economy and to co-opt the rising Nazi party into government.

Chancellor Von Papen

In power from June - December 1932. He also failed to get the Nazis to join government

Chancellor von Schleicher

In power from December 1932 - January 1933. He failed to split the Nazi party and Von Papen plotted against him

Hitler and the Nazi Party

The National Socialist German Workers' Party was founded in 1920 by Anton Drexler. By 1921 Adolf Hitler was in charge; after a power struggle, he emerged as 'Führer'. It was one of many small extreme right parties in Germany, and was based in Munich, Bavaria.

Nazi Ideology

• Found in 'the 25 point Programme' and 'Mein Kampf'

• The concept of Racial Hierarchy: Aryans as the best people; the master race

• Socialist reform (25 points, not Mein Kampf)

• Volksgemeinschaft- the People's community - race above religious/regional/class identity

• The Principle of Dictatorship - anti-democratic

• Aggressive Nationalism- anti-treaty of Versailles, Lebensraum

Key moments in the history of the Nazi Party

1921: Hitler takes power 1923: the Beer Hall Putsch fails 1924: Hitler in prison, Mein Kampf was written 1925: Hitler decides on a policy of 'legality' 1925: 27,000 members 1927: 72,000 members (other right wing parties joining the Nazi Party...) 1928: elections, 2.8% of the vote, 12 seats in Reichstag 1928: electoral breakthrough; the party changed its target audience to the middle class 1929: the Young Plan and DNVP/Hugenberg's campaign against it brought the Nazi Party to national attention 1930: Germany in Depression September 1930: Elections - Nazis got 18.3% of the vote and107 seats in the Reichstag; second biggest party after SPD

Key leaders of the Nazi party

Hess, Himmler, Goering, Goebbels

Hitler's rise to Power 1930 - 1933

Hitler was able to go from being the leader of one of many small right wing parties to being chancellor of Germany (and then Fürher) within a few years. In 1928, his party got 2.6% of the national vote. Five years later in the March 1933 elections, they got 44% of the vote.

Who voted for the Nazis?

The most they polled in a free and fair election was 37.4% in July 1932. The Middle class voted for them, rural rather than urban, men rather than women, Protestant rather than Catholic.

How do we know that the middle class voted for them?

The KPD/SPD/Centre kept their votes. Other middle class parties did not.

Why did the middle class vote for the Nazis?

Fear of communism. They disliked democracy and socialism. They were the victims of the hyperinflation

Who (else) voted for the Nazis? (Aside from the middle class)

Catholic workers did vote for the Nazis in Silesia. Young people of any class voted for them (first time voters); they didn't have strong connections to the unions as they were largely unemployed, those who hadn't bothered voting before also voted for them

Nazi Political Methods (Propaganda)

Organised by Hitler and Goebbels. Posters, leaflets, simple slogans repeated over and over, modern technology; radio, film, loudspeakers, aeroplanes, expensive cars.

Mass Rallies: the high point of Nazi propaganda; torches, music, speeches, parades, salutes...

Propaganda was aimed at specific groups: workers, farmers, small businessmen, industrialists...

It was focused on what they were against rather than what they were for.

Nazi Political Methods (Violence)

SA & SS as the instruments of violence. Despite the policy of legality, a lot of violence was used, particularly against SPD and KPD. It did not turn off voters, rather it attracted them as the middle class could see that the Nazis meant business when they said that they opposed socialism and communism.

Hitler appointed as Chancellor

From 1930 on, Hindenburg and his advisors were keen to get Hitler in Government; he had mass support, they didn't. But they didn't want to give him much power, so he refused to join.

Discussions were held over 3 years. After Von Papen failed to get Hitler to join government after the November 32 election, he was sacked. Von Schleicher tried to split the Nazi party but failed.

Von Papen then persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933 with himself as vice Chancellor.

How Hitler went from Chancellor to Dictator

January 1933: Hitler was appointed Chancellor by Hindenburg on the condition of new elections in March February 1933: Reichstag fire, KPD blamed March 1933: 44% of the vote in an election that was not free or fair. DNVP got 8% so together, a majority 23rd March 1933: the Enabling act made Hitler a dictator; it gave him the power to rule by decree

All parties except SPD and KPD voted for it

Hitler in Power 1933-1934: from Chancellor to Fürher (Gleichschaltung)

Gleichschaltung was an attempt to nazify German institutions and society. State government was gradually done away with; first put under Nazi control, their powers reduced, then totally subservient to Ministry of interior by January 1934

Trade Unions abolished in May 1933; replaced by D.A.F. Political Parties were abolished: KPD already banned, SPD in June.

By a new law enacted on 14th July 1933, Nazi party is the only legal party

Hitler in Power 1933-1934: from Chancellor to Fürher (NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES)

Ernst Rohm, leader of the SA, wanted a more revolutionary approach; abandon the alliance with the old elites and go for the full nazification of government and society. SA were to replace the army.

Hitler was reluctant; he needed a proper army for his foreign policy aims. As Hindenburg was dying, he decided for the army; needed their support to become head of state.

20th June, 1934, SA leaders were arrested and shot. August 1934, Hitler merged the office of Chancellor and President, and took the title of Fürher

The Nazi System of Government

• A coalition government with the old elites

• Hitler with dictatorial powers

• No mass purge of state institutions

• Party was not totally dominant over government, unlike in USSR

• The party was not very united; really a series of factions: SS, SA, D.A.F., Nazi professional leagues, Hitler Youth...

• Lots of new members after '33 - caused resentment with the 'old fighters'

How Hitler ran the Nazi Government

Hitler was lazy and indecisive, he put off making difficult decisions, and spent a lot of time away from Berlin.

Structuralists say he was a 'weak dictator'

Intentionalists disagree - there was chaos in government, but it was on purpose to keep him on top, also ideological; survival of the fittest...

The Police State

After the Night of the Long Knives, the SS emerged as a very powerful institution. Headed by Heinrich Himmler since 1929.

1931: He set up the S.D. (the party's internal security service 1934: SS took control of all political policing 1936: Himmler took control of all policing

• The SS in control of all racial matters

• Waffen SS during the war

• Industrial wing during the war (in control of death camps)

• Became the most important institution during the war

Use of terror (Camps)

Concentration camps were set up to contain enemies of the regime in 1933; run by the SA, then SS. KPD, SPD members and union leaders were the first to be imprisoned.

Camps were very brutal; the point was to terrorize and create fear. Camps were later used for any opponents of the regime; priests, journalists, etc..

Even homosexuals and regular criminals were sent later on

Politics and Government in the 3rd Reich

It is debated by historians if the 3rd Reich was politicially totalitarian.

Or a Polycracy? Many centres of power: Hitler, the various party groups, the ministries, the army, the SA, the SS, the Churches, big business. Certainly there was chaos in government; e.g. Four year plan and ministry of economics. But Hitler remained in control till his death in 1945

Economy in the 3rd Reich

Before 1933, no specific economic programme; for Hitler, economy was just a means to an end. Economic policy therefore was pragmatic.

Dr. Schacht was minister of economics. He engineered an economic recovery; unemployment fell. Deficit financing, rearmament, public works schemes.

By 1936, unemployment was low, but Schacht knew that Germany needed to start exporting.

Economy and the Four Year Plan

Schacht's solution to the balance of payments problem: cut rearmament and start producing for export; this was not acceptable to Hitler.

1936: the 4 Year Plan was established; aim - to get Germany ready for war in 4 years. Drive for autarky. Goering was in charge of it, Schacht resigned, replaced by Funk in 1937.

By 1939, the economy was not ready for a large war

Economy in war (1939-1941)

There is controversy over link between economy and war (a war for resources?)

1939-1941, the war went well for Germany with not much economic impact on the ordinary German.

However they had great inefficiency in armaments production. Chaos in management of economy; Goering, Funk, ministry of finance, ministry of labour... All often doing the same job.

1943: 'Total War' begins

Economy in war (1942-1945)

February 1942, Albert Speer was appointed minister of armaments. He effectively took control of economic policy. Within 6 months there was a 59% increase in arms production, by June 1944, a threefold increase from when he started.

However, he had no control over economy in the occupied territories (SS controlled this).

1943 on, blanket bombing, war was being lost anyway 1945: total economic collapse

Who benefitted from the Nazi regime's economic policies?

1. Old elites: Big business benefitted a lot but lost freedom to choose what to produce. Major landowners also benefitted from autarky policies, but lost political influence

2. the middle class: those who voted for the Nazis didn't really benefit economically; as a class they declined. Hitler had to favour big business because of foreign policy aims

3. Workers: got jobs, but no real increase in living standards from pre depression era

Aims of Social Policy in the 3rd Reich

The aim was to create a people's community; the volksgemeinschaft. People should identify with the national community rather than with class, religion, region.

But, not all were welcome; Jews, communists, homosexuals, the handicapped, 'anti-socials' (alcoholics, drug addicts, prostitutes, criminals, the 'workshy'...) were all excluded

Education and Youth

The purpose of education: for the long term survival of the regime; so indoctrination. Strong emphasis on PE, Biology and German History, but all subjects contained a pro-Nazi bias.

Educational standards fell during the 3rd Reich; real learning was not encouraged, most education was propaganda, discipline also decreased as students had the power to denounce their teachers.

Youth Movements

The Hitler Youth Movement aimed to indoctrinate; military style activities for boys, girls prepared for motherhood.

By 1936, membership was compulsory for those who attended school (but working class children usually left school by 14...) It was successful with those naturally sympathetic to the regime (middle class), but less so with working class and upper class.

There were also youth movements that opposed the Nazis: swing movement, edelweiss pirates..

Women and Family (Aims + means)

AIMS: very traditional; women at home having children. Why? Traditional values, and a need for future soldiers

Means: getting women out of jobs - civil service, teaching, law, medicine. This only affected middle class women

Other means: abortion and contraception availability was reduced. Greater maternity benefits. Loans for married couples which dropped by 25% for each healthy child. Medals for mothers; bronze:4, silver:6, gold:8

Women and Family (How successful were they?)

Less success with working class women; simply, they needed to work (couldn't afford not to) and the state needed their labour. So, contradiction between aims and economic reality

Successes? Birth rates did increase a bit between 1933 and 1939, but then decreased. Was policy responsible for the increase? Hard to tell. But basically, policy was incompatible with social and economic reality of an industrialised nation

Religion and Churches (Catholic Church)

AIMS: certainly to control the churches and minimize their influence. Long term to destroy them as a source of rival ideology. But policy was torn between limited persecution and total suppression.

At first a conciliatory stance; concordat with the Catholic church; guarantees of religious freedom as long as the Church stayed out of politics. But problems soon broke out over youth movements and education. Clergy who spoke out were sent to concentration camps

Religion and Churches (Other Churches)

The Lutheran Church split into Deutsche Christian(pro-Nazi) and the Confessional Church (anti-Nazi, Pastor Niemoller)

As war broke out a more cautious policy was adopted. In the end, the war was lost and the Churches survived. The Churches only spoke out and resisted on issues that effected their core beliefs ('euthanasia programme') but didn't speak out for socialists or others who were persecuted.

Ministry of Propaganda in the 3rd Reich

March 1933: the Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda was set up. Run by Goebbels, his job was to indoctrinate the German People.

He preferred the spoken word to the written, so speakers were put in public places and factories to broadcast speeches, etc. Cheap radios were produced.

Propaganda in the press

Control of Press: 1933, 4700 daily newspapers in Germany! So how to control them all? Some were shut down, some bought up, but the Editor's Law of 1933 made the editor personally responsible for content, so self-censorship was imposed.

Other attempts to make people identify with the regime: The German Salute, uniforms, Nazi holidays...

Propaganda in the arts

The Reich Chamber of Culture: under Goebbels; controlled art, film, literature, music and theatre. It aimed to make German culture more Nazi-like. Many works of art were banned; those by Jews and socialists.

Arts in general; classics were acceptable, but modern art was discouraged. So no great art was produced in Germany between 1933 and 1945. many artists left.