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Adaptive immune response (2nd exposure)

Responds faster than the first exposure

Neutral mutation

A mutation that does not affect phenotype or fitness

Advantageous mutation

A mutation that increases fitness

Deleterious mutation

A mutation that harms the organism

Lethal mutation

A mutation that causes death

Step NOT in mammalian digestion

Removal via exocytosis

Complement (false statement)

Not required for antigen-antibody complex formation

Adaptive traits

Genetically based traits that increase survival and reproduction

Hypothalamus

Brain region responding to ghrelin and leptin

First line of defense

Physical barriers

Second line of defense

Innate immunity

Third line of defense

Adaptive immunity

Macroevolution

Large-scale evolutionary change over long time periods

Microevolution

Small-scale genetic changes within populations

Macroevolution vs Microevolution

Time scale and species divergence differences

Example of macroevolution

Limb loss in snakes

Example of microevolution

Finch beak size variation

Darwin

Natural selection

Aristotle

Great chain of being

Lamarck

Use/disuse and inheritance of acquired traits

Hutton

Gradualism

Lyell

Encouraged Darwin and Wallace

Energy used first

Glycogen and stored fats

Disruptive selection

Favors extreme phenotypes

Directional selection

Favors one extreme

Stabilizing selection

Favors intermediate phenotypes

Environmental effects on phenotype

Environment changes physical traits (e.g., flower color)

Memory cells

Long-lived immune cells responding to repeated exposure

Order of antibody-mediated immunity

Antigen contact → fragmentation → helper T interaction → B cell cloning → antibody secretion

Low cytotoxic T cells

Susceptibility to viruses

HOXC8 mutation effect

Loss of hindlimbs in snakes

Antibody-mediated vs cell-mediated immunity

Both use T cells; only antibody-mediated uses B cells

Orthogenesis

The idea evolution progresses toward improvement (incorrect theory)

Stomach digestion aids

Pepsinogen and HCl

Bulk feeding

Eating large pieces of food

Fluid feeding

Consuming liquid nutrients

Deposit feeding

Extracting nutrients from substrate

Suspension feeding

Filtering particles from water

Vestigial structure

Remnant organ with reduced function (e.g., appendix)

APCs interaction (antibody response)

CD4+ T cells

APCs interaction (cell response)

CD8+ T cells

Large intestine function issue

Watery stool if malfunctioning

Quantitative traits

Measurable (height, weight, wingspan)

Qualitative traits

Categorical (eye color, blood type)

Homologous structures

Structures with common ancestry

Digestive tract order

Mouth → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → anus

Heterozygous advantage

Heterozygotes have higher fitness (e.g., sickle cell & malaria resistance)

Small intestine adaptation

Microvilli increase surface area

Pancreatic enzymes

Proteases (proteins), amylases (carbs), lipases (lipids)

Liver secretion

Bile salts emulsify fats

Blocked bile duct effect

Fat digestion impaired

Primary immune response peak

~2 weeks

Population bottleneck

Sharp reduction in population size

Hardy-Weinberg conditions

No mutation, no selection, no migration, large population

Intracellular digestion

Endocytosis-based digestion

Short bowel syndrome effects

Undernutrition and reduced fat digestion

Gastric ulcer damage

Mucosa layer exposing submucosa

Darwin’s key ideas

Evolution over generations, natural selection, population-level change, physical processes

Inflammatory response symptoms

Pain, swelling, heat, tenderness

Why you can catch colds again

Different viral epitopes

Neutralization

Antibodies block toxins

Darwin’s ship

HMS Beagle

Invertebrate immunity

Phagocytes and lysozyme

Allergic response

B cells produce IgE antibodies

Qualitative variation

Discrete traits

Polymorphism

Multiple forms of a trait

Gene pool

All genes in a population

Gene flow

Movement of alleles between populations

Dominant vs recessive alleles

Dominant traits may mask recessive

Essential nutrients

Proteins, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids

Antibiotic resistance

Bacteria evolve mechanisms (e.g., beta-lactamase)

Active immunity

Slow onset, long-lasting

Passive immunity

Fast but short-lived

Cell signaling in immunity

Upregulation of molecules and communication between cells