PSYCHOPATHOLOGY - PAPER 1

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

Statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health.

What is statistical infrequency?

Behaviour is abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual.

What IQ score is linked to statistical infrequency?

IQ below 70.

What IQ score is considered average?

Around 100.

What percentage of people have an IQ below 70?

About 2%.

How can statistical infrequency be useful?

It can help identify rare conditions, such as intellectual disability.

What is a limitation of statistical infrequency?

Rare behaviour is not always undesirable, such as having a very high IQ.

Why can statistical infrequency lead to incorrect labelling?

It may classify unusual but harmless behaviours as abnormal.

What is deviation from social norms?

Behaviour is abnormal if it violates accepted social rules.

How is antisocial personality disorder linked to deviation from social norms?

It involves behaviour that violates social norms and the rights of others.

What is a strength of deviation from social norms?

It can help identify behaviour that may be harmful or disruptive.

What is a limitation of deviation from social norms?

Social norms vary across cultures and historical periods.

Why is deviation from social norms culturally relative?

What is considered abnormal in one culture may be normal in another.

Why can deviation from social norms lead to abuse of power?

People who do not conform to social expectations may be wrongly labelled abnormal.

What is failure to function adequately?

Behaviour is abnormal if a person cannot cope with everyday life.

Who proposed signs of failure to function adequately?

Rosenhan and Seligman.

What are Rosenhan and Seligman’s signs of failure to function adequately?

Suffering, maladaptiveness, irrationality, unpredictability and observer discomfort.

What does maladaptiveness mean?

Behaviour that prevents a person from meeting everyday demands or causes harm.

What is a strength of failure to function adequately?

It considers the person’s real-life distress and ability to cope.

What is a limitation of failure to function adequately?

It can be subjective because people may disagree about whether someone is coping.

Why may failure to function adequately be culturally biased?

Expectations about functioning differ across cultures.

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

Abnormality is defined as the absence of psychological wellbeing.

Who proposed deviation from ideal mental health?

Jahoda.

What year did Jahoda propose ideal mental health?

1958.

What are Jahoda’s six criteria for ideal mental health?

Positive self-attitudes, self-actualisation, resistance to stress, autonomy, accurate perception of reality and environmental mastery.

What is positive self-attitude?

Having self-respect and a positive view of yourself.

What is self-actualisation?

Reaching your full potential.

What is resistance to stress?

Being able to cope with stress and anxiety.

What is autonomy?

Being independent and self-directed.

What is accurate perception of reality?

Seeing the world realistically.

What is environmental mastery?

Being able to meet the demands of everyday life.

What is a strength of deviation from ideal mental health?

It is comprehensive because it considers several aspects of psychological wellbeing.

What is a limitation of deviation from ideal mental health?

It is unrealistic because very few people meet all of Jahoda’s criteria all the time.

Why may Jahoda’s criteria be culturally biased?

Some criteria, such as autonomy, reflect individualist Western values.

What are the three categories of characteristics for mental disorders?

Behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics.

What are behavioural characteristics?

Observable actions or behaviours.

What are emotional characteristics?

Feelings or moods associated with a disorder.

What are cognitive characteristics?

Thoughts, beliefs and mental processes associated with a disorder.

What is a phobia?

An irrational fear of an object, situation or activity that leads to avoidance.

What are behavioural characteristics of phobias?

Avoidance, panic and endurance.

What is avoidance in phobias?

Staying away from the feared object or situation to reduce anxiety.

What is panic in phobias?

An intense behavioural fear response, such as crying, screaming or running away.

What is endurance in phobias?

Remaining in the feared situation but experiencing high anxiety.

What are emotional characteristics of phobias?

Fear, anxiety and distress.

What are cognitive characteristics of phobias?

Irrational beliefs, selective attention to threat and cognitive distortions.

What is selective attention in phobias?

Focusing strongly on the feared object or situation.

What is depression?

A mood disorder involving low mood, loss of interest and changes in behaviour, emotion and cognition.

What are behavioural characteristics of depression?

Reduced activity, social withdrawal and sleep/eating disruption.

What is reduced activity in depression?

Loss of energy or motivation, which can make everyday tasks difficult.

What is social withdrawal in depression?

Avoiding social contact and isolating from others.

What are emotional characteristics of depression?

Sadness, anger, guilt and low self-esteem.

What are cognitive characteristics of depression?

Negative thoughts, poor concentration and absolutist thinking.

What is absolutist thinking in depression?

Seeing situations in extreme all-or-nothing terms.

What is OCD?

An anxiety-related disorder involving obsessions and compulsions.

What are obsessions?

Recurrent intrusive thoughts, urges or images that cause anxiety.

What are compulsions?

Repetitive behaviours or mental acts carried out to reduce anxiety.

What are behavioural characteristics of OCD?

Compulsions, checking, cleaning, counting and avoidance.

What are emotional characteristics of OCD?

Anxiety, distress, guilt and disgust.

What are cognitive characteristics of OCD?

Obsessions, intrusive thoughts, inflated responsibility and excessive doubt.

What is inflated responsibility in OCD?

Believing you are responsible for preventing harm or danger.

What is a limitation of characteristics of disorders?

Symptoms can overlap between disorders, making diagnosis difficult.

What is the behavioural explanation of phobias called?

The two-process model.

Who proposed the two-process model of phobias?

Mowrer.

What year did Mowrer propose the two-process model?

1960.

What does the two-process model explain?

Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

How are phobias acquired?

Through classical conditioning by association.

How are phobias maintained?

Through operant conditioning and negative reinforcement.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning through association.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning through consequences.

What is negative reinforcement in phobias?

Avoidance reduces anxiety, so avoidance is repeated.

Give an example of classical conditioning in phobias.

Being bitten by a dog creates an association between dogs and fear.

Give an example of operant conditioning in phobias.

Avoiding dogs reduces anxiety, so avoidance is repeated.

Who conducted the Little Albert study?

Watson and Rayner.

What year was the Little Albert study?

1920.

What did Watson and Rayner investigate?

Whether fear could be learned through classical conditioning.

What was the neutral stimulus in the Little Albert study?

The white rat before conditioning.

What was the unconditioned stimulus in the Little Albert study?

The loud noise.

What was the unconditioned response in the Little Albert study?

Fear caused by the loud noise.

What was the conditioned stimulus in the Little Albert study?

The white rat after being paired with the loud noise.

What was the conditioned response in the Little Albert study?

Fear of the white rat.

What did Little Albert generalise his fear to?

Similar white fluffy objects.

How does Little Albert support the behavioural explanation of phobias?

It shows fear can be learned through classical conditioning.

What is a strength of the two-process model?

It explains both acquisition and maintenance of phobias.

What is a limitation of the two-process model?

Not all phobias develop after a traumatic experience.

What is biological preparedness?

The idea that humans are naturally prepared to fear things that were dangerous to ancestors.

How does biological preparedness challenge the two-process model?

It suggests some phobias may be innate rather than learned.

Why is the two-process model reductionist?

It explains phobias only through conditioning and ignores cognitive and biological factors.

What is systematic desensitisation?

A behavioural therapy for phobias using relaxation and gradual exposure.

Who developed systematic desensitisation?

Wolpe.

What year did Wolpe develop systematic desensitisation?

1958.

What are the three stages of systematic desensitisation?

Relaxation training, anxiety hierarchy and gradual exposure.

What is relaxation training?

Teaching the patient relaxation techniques to use during exposure.

What is an anxiety hierarchy?

A list of feared situations ranked from least to most frightening.

What is gradual exposure?

Slowly working through the anxiety hierarchy while staying relaxed.

What is counterconditioning?

Replacing the fear response with a relaxation response.

What is reciprocal inhibition?

It is impossible to be relaxed and anxious at the same time.

Who researched systematic desensitisation for spider phobias?

Gilroy.

What year was Gilroy’s spider phobia study?

2003.

How many patients were in Gilroy’s spider phobia study?

42.

How many sessions did Gilroy’s patients receive?

Three 45-minute sessions.