5 Regeneration

What makes a place distinctive that is geographical in nature?

physical landscapes, resulting from geology and landscape processes

human landscapes, which are often linked to physical factors (such as building materials)

economic past- towns can have wealthy industrial pasts, and still retain part of this identity

What else makes a place distinctive?

Religious past

Food and drink

How it is portrayed in the media

What is regeneration?

Redeveloping former industrial areas or outdated housing to bring about economic and social change. It focuses on reinventing the purpose of a place.

What is re-branding?

Ways in which a place is deliberately reinvented for economic reasons and then marketed to new investors

What is the primary sector?

Producing food crops and raw materials

What is the secondary sector?

Manufacturing finished products

What is the tertiary sector?

Providing services, either in the private or public sectors

What is the quaternary sector?

Providing specialist services in finance and law, or industries such as IT or biotechnology

What is the quinary sector?

High level decision making, e.g. government

Explain why there has been a drift of people to London

The decline of primary and secondary sectors and the subsequent growth of tertiary and quaternary sectors

What were the reasons for the decline in the primary and secondary sectors?

British coal was located deeper underground than it was in other countries, and was thus more expensive to mine

UK wages were often higher than they were overseas

Why did the tertiary sector grow?

Because of higher incomes, cheaper air travel, increased car ownership and re-branding.

Why did the quaternary sector grow?

Because it provides highly specialised jobs, which were encouraged by the government in order to increase levels of disposable income.

What does the term footloose mean?

When an industry can locate anywhere, mainly due to improvements in telecommunications.

What are regional inequalities?

When there are disparities between different regions of a country in terms of income. They include variations in standard of living and opportunities.

What data shows the variations in quality of life across the UK?

Life Satisfaction Index- shows how people assess their quality of life, and shows that it is lower in highly populated areas such as London and also in generally poorer areas of the country, however higher in areas where wages are high and house prices are relatively low

What is occupation and life expectancy?

It shows the relationship between job classification and life expectancy, and how occupation has social consequences. There are 5-6 years between the highest and lowest occupational groups

What is the general relationship between income and health?

Data shows that those on the lowest incomes are the most deprived, and also the ones who report that they are in bad health more

What data shows variations in educational achievement?

Attainment 8 scores- pupils in Sutton (London) have the highest attainment 8 score of 59.9, compared to the lowest, from pupils in Knowsley, North East England (33.3). This shows regional disparities in education

Describe the East End prior to deindustrialisation

Until the 1970s, they were the UK’s largest docks. Dockworkers and their families lived nearby; they were poorly paid, and much of their housing was social housing rented from local councils.

What caused the decline of the docks?

Container ships became larger, and huge cranes replaced the traditional workers to unload them (mechanisation). This meant that people were no longer needed for manual labour so were left unemployed.

What were the impacts of the docks closing?

The last of the original docks closed in 1981. Between 1978 and 1983, over 12,000 jobs were lost, and in the 1981 census, over 60% of adult men were unemployed in some parts of East London. The riverside consisted of abandoned docks, which was not good for the city’s image. Nearby industries closed because they relied on the imports and exporting finished products.

How did population change in the East End following the closure of the docks?

Between 1971 and 1981, the population of the East End fell by 100,000

What is the LDDC?

The London Docklands Development Corporation, which was a government agency that focused on encouraging growth. It brought key players together, such as property owners keen to purchase land, architects, construction companies, and investors. It was known as market-led regeneration, and was incentivised by tax breaks on new buildings

How was economic growth brought about in the London Docklands area?

Canary Wharf (where the docklands used to be), is London’s second Central Business District. There was a rise in employment, particularly in high paying jobs. Every day, 100,000 commuters travel there, as well as 325,000 who work in the city

How has new infrastructure aided regeneration in London?

There have been new transport developments, which have included extending the Jubilee Line on the underground, developing the DLR, building new roads (Limehouse Road Link), and creating London City Airport to provide access to the City and Canary Wharf for business travellers.

How have the population in the London Docklands area changed?

Many older people have moved out, and have been replaced by a much younger generation (working age). The ethnic composition has changed due to large-scale immigration, and Newham is now London’s most ethnically diverse borough.

How has the housing in the East End changed?

Much of the housing in the East End transferred from the public to the private sector, due to the government’s Right to Buy scheme, which has meant that lower income people have been forced out. Many of the old warehouses have been transformed into expensive and desirable housing

What problems remain still after the London Docklands regeneration?

People in poor health are often unable to work, and are concentrated in what remains of low-cost social housing. This has led to higher deprivation in Tower Hamlets and Newham. Tower Hamlets has the lowest average life expectancy in London (77 years)

What is meant by the term ‘centripetal forces’?

Forces that draw people together, with a strong sense of community.

What is meant by the term ‘centrifugal forces’?

Changes that have largely forced people apart.

How has globalisation forced people apart (in the East End)?

It has affected manufacturing, and also shipping in East London. People have left to find work else where, and this led to the break up of communities and families

How has employment change forced people apart?

More people are in higher income jobs. In 1951, 18% of the UK’s population had professional or managerial occupations, and now it is 31%. This has meant that more people buy their own properties, so many urban areas have re-urbanised and been revitalised. However, newcomers have displaced existing residents, forcing people away.

How has inward migration forced people apart?

Overseas migrants have provided much needed labour, and this changes the character of places. Former residents are less likely to identify with their local area once they leave. However, it does create new identities.

What are some quantitative approaches to studying places?

Surveys, which can include social and environmental factors. Profiling is also a way, and this uses census data

What are qualitative approaches to studying places?

Photos, which can be labelled and used to compare places in different areas and also in different time periods. Interviews are also good, as they record people’s lived experiences

What is an example of a successful place?

Sydney— a global city, that has seen lots of migration because of a desirable climate and high paid jobs

What makes Sydney so successful?

It is on the south-east coast, which has been found to have a large proportion of high-income jobs, and Sydney has shown to be one of the most important cities in the world in terms of globalisation. It also has the highest GDP of all of Australia’s cities.

What makes Sydney a leading financial centre?

• It has many overseas-owned banks and TNCs

• There were over 450,000 businesses based in Sydney in 2011

• It has a very young economically active workforce, with a median age of 36 (this comes at a cost, as the ‘outback’ is facing decline because of losing young people and their skills)

• There are low levels of multiple deprivation (there are some deprived areas still)

What are the costs of living in Sydney?

It is very expensive to live there, because of high property demand (even though salaries are also high)

What is an example of an unsuccessful place (hint: USA)?

The rust-belt in the USA (comprising of areas in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, New York and Indiana), which faced decline mainly due to overseas companies producing cheaper goods such as coal and steel, mining companies mechanising and lower wage costs in the south-east (+unionisation)

Why does the US government continue to subsidise the coal industry?

The coal industry today would not be able to compete internationally and would close, leading to the negative multiplier effect.

What problems has economic decline in the rust-belt caused?

• Population decline and brain drain, as people leave to seek work elsewhere

• High unemployment, antisocial behaviour and crime

• Reduced revenue for councils as consumer spending falls, but also increased spending commitments caused by those claiming welfare

What factors produce rural communities?

• Key people who are willing to stand for elections, raise money or organise activities.

• A range of activities that welcome all demographics

• Politicians that organise things such as markets and newsletters, that mean residents feel informed and supported.

How and why does political engagement vary in the UK and the EU?

• Turnout varies geographically, as it tends to be higher in rural than urban areas.

• Political engagement reduces as people become more removed from the centre of power, producing voter apathy.

Why does community engagement vary? (4 reasons)

• Age— those aged 60 and over are more likely to vote in elections, partly because they have more time to devote to community activities.

• Gender— More women tend to engage in community work than men.

• Ethnicity and length of residence— engagement in communities in unlikely to develop when there is a higher proportion of ‘short-term residents’

• Deprivation— historical trends have shown that the higher the level of deprivation, the lower the voter turnout. However, people are more likely to vote when faced with prejudice or exploitation at work.

How does regeneration affect engagement in a community?

It can cause conflict, as the processes are often top-down or imposed from above, and are based on economic motives. It can also create inequality, which deepens conflict. This affects engagement as it reduces community cohesiveness and people are less likely to feel attachment to a place.

What are players?

Those involved in an issue, proposal or project. They are sometimes called stakeholders, as they have an interest or stake in what is happening.

Which players are usually involved the most in the UK?

The central government and the private sector.

What economic factors determine an area’s need for regeneration?

An area needing employment. In the ward of Custom House in Newham in 2001, only 37.6% of adults were in full-time work (compared to the London average of 51.6% and the Canary Wharf area of 60.3%)

What social factors determine an area’s need for regeneration?

When an area needs improved housing, health facilities and education. In Custom House in 2001, 71.6% of the housing stock was rented, with much of it being low quality. 43.1% of adults had no educational qualifications.

What environmental factors determine an areas need for regeneration?

High levels of deindustrialisation leading to lots of derelict and contaminated land, such as due to the closure of the docks in the 1980s.

What were the four areas initially focused on as part of the CATCH programme in Custom House?

• housing— 10,000 affordable new homes planned for construction by 2020. Also renovating much of the existing housing.

• employment— job creation and training for local people, new local shops and a supermarket were opened, and public transport was improved.

• education— replacement buildings for local primary and secondary schools

• health— a new health centre, library, community centre and children’s play area were opened. The streets were made safer by redesigning them using traffic calming and open spaces.

Why are media portrayals of regeneration important?

They portray projects in different ways by showing conflicting opinions

What aspects of media can help shape peoples’ opinions of a place?

• music

• photography

• film

• art

• literature

What was the initial route planned for HS2?

• Phase 1— a high-speed link between London Euston and Birmingham Curzon Street

• Phase 2— link north-west to Manchester and north-east to Leeds

What are the proposed benefits of HS2?

Improved journey times between major cities, for example the London to Birmingham journey time will be cut from 80 to 49 minutes. An estimated 60,000 construction jobs will be created.

What are the potential costs of HS2?

The planned route will pass right through the Chilterns, which is an area of outstanding natural beauty. There will be no intermediate stations, so communities along the route will not gain from it.

Why is the expense to the government from HS2 viewed more as an investment? What does it have to gain?

• franchising fees from train companies to run services

• an economic multiplier, which should result from the improved transport links generating higher company profits, and also jobs from which the government will receive taxation revenue.

What are the challenges that the government faces when planning for things such as housing in Cornwall?

• Can the loss of greenfield landscapes be balanced against housing needs?

• Should planning restrictions be lifted in Green Belts or Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB)?

What is a cost-benefit analysis?

A process by which the financial, social and environmental costs are weighed up against the benefits of a proposal.

What are the reasons more housing is needed in the UK?

• a rapidly rising population, due to immigration and birth rates

• overseas investors buying up space and then leaving it unoccupied

• an increase in the number of households

• the need for more affordable housing

What is fracking?

The process of drilling down into horizontal layers of shale deep underground, and releasing gas from it by injecting fracking fluid and fracturing the shale.

What are the benefits of fracking?

It could add to the UK’s home-produced natural gas supplies and reduce the need for imported gas.

What are the costs of fracking?

It conflicts with landscapes of value, as fracking companies would need to drill underneath these areas.

What changes were involved in deregulation of the financial sector?

• instead of having a monopoly, anybody could trade in shares, which opened up the freedom of individuals to invest

• barriers stopping overseas banks and other financial institutions from setting up offices in London were also removed

What is Cornwall’s biggest economic problem?

It lacks a year-round economy

What is Cornwall’s ‘old economy’?

Mostly primary sector jobs, which provided year-round permanent jobs, but have declined significantly.

What is Cornwall’s ‘new economy’?

Its quaternary economy is small, and the biggest industry there is tourism, which is tertiary. However, jobs in tourism are mainly low-wage, part time and seasonal.

Why is Cornwall referred to as a post-production countryside?

Because its rural areas are less productive than before, and its biggest problem is how to develop a high-income economy that will provide well-paid jobs all year round.

Why did the farming industry decline in Cornwall?

• falling farm revenues, as supermarkets seek to pay their suppliers the lowest possible price

• cheaper imported food from countries where wages and other costs are much lower

• a reduction in EU subsidies

Why did the fishing industry decline in Cornwall?

• EU quotas allocated some Cornish fish stocks to fishing vessels from other European countries

• stocks of many types of fish have declined due to over-fishing of young fish in previous years

Why has tin and copper mining declined in Cornwall?

• most of the reserves have been mined out

• tin prices have collapsed due to cheaper overseas competition

• the strength of the pound has made the UK’s tin more expensive overseas, and Cornwall’s last tin mine closed in 1998

Why has the quarrying industry declined in Cornwall?

• in the 1960s, 10,000 people worked in the Cornish chin clay industry, but by 2015 the French TNC owner had cut the labour force down to 800 and moved much of the operation to Brazil

• mechanisation means there are less people needed

Why is Cornwall’s location significant for its economic activity?

Cornwall is remote from the rest of the UK, and because of this it is not ideal for international businesses. It lies far from the core areas of the UK, and journey times by road or rail are long and expensive.

Why is branding important to the Cornish economy?

• mining heritage in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries meant that series like Poldark were produced, which attracts tourists every year

• a song by West Country folk group Show of Hands, ‘Cousin Jack’, is about miners who left Cornwall in the late nineteenth century when new mineral discoveries were made overseas.

What is destination tourism?

The decision to visit an area for a short period based on a single attraction.

What are some other rebranding strategies for Cornwall’s post-production countryside?

• farm diversification

• ‘foodie’ restaurants, e.g. those started by Rick Stein, such as Rick Stein’s fish and chips in Newquay

• spectacular gardens

• outdoor pursuits, e.g. the Extreme Academy at Watergate Bay near Newquay

What is Regional Aid?

Funding proved by the government and the EU to areas that are less economically advantaged (mainly areas in the UK’s periphery)

What financial incentives are included in Enterprise Zones?

• council business tax discounts of up to 100% for every business for up to five years (up to a limit of £160,000)

• a planning-free environment, in which no planning permission is needed for building

• the provision of superfast broadband

What were the aims of the Newquay Aerohub?

• to begin the process of diversifying Cornwall’s economy away from its dependence on tourism

• 700 high-value, skilled permanent jobs would be created there in the first year

• by 2015 companies like Apple Aviation and British International Helicopters would be located there

What were the failures of the Newquay Aerohub regneration?

• by the end of 2015, only 450 jobs had been created and few of these were ‘new’ jobs

• little ‘new’ investment had come into Cornwall’s new Aerohub

What is an example of how urban areas have attracted companies quickly?

• in south Lancashire, an established science and innovation centre near Warrington attracted 14 new businesses employing 160 people in its first year

• Liverpool city centre also gained projects worth £165 million

How has London utilised its industrial past in regeneration?

It has celebrated its industrial heritage by regenerating old industrial buildings and their river-side locations, such as the Battersea power station

What is the industrial history of Glasgow?

The shipbuilding industry, as well as engineering, steel and coal. When cheaper overseas competition in the late twentieth century led to the collapse of the shipbuilding industry, all of the other industries collapsed with it.

How has the arts, culture, sport and tourism industry grown in Glasgow?

• Glasgow was the European Capital of Culture in 1990

• it was the UK’s City of Architecture and Design in 1999

• it hosted the Commonwealth Games in 2014

• it is home to famous museums such as the Riverside Museum of Travel and Transport

• Clydebank’s heritage listed Titan Crane, which has been refurbished as a visitor attraction and local landmark.

• the brand ‘Glasgow: Scotland with Style’

How has residential development taken place in Glasgow?

Investment from private property developers has been encouraged to build homes along the Clyde, together with shops and restaurants, to regenerate the former industrial areas.

How is the media present in Glasgow?

The BBC Headquarters for Scotland’s TV and radio broadcasting opened in 2007, and the commercial broadcaster STV is located nearby

What was included in ‘A Vision for Plymouth’?

• a new shopping complex in the city centre (Drake Circus)

• a cruise terminal to attract international tourists, however there were only 26 in 2014

• a rebranded Plymouth Science Park, which will help to expand Plymouth’s growing knowledge economy

• a proposed sport and leisure partnership with Plymouth Argyle football club

Which private sector company was part of the regeneration project in the Royal William Yard?

Urban Splash

What is a disadvantage of the Royal William Yard?

It is 2 km from the city centre, which some feel is a disadvantage for businesses.

What were the impacts of the decline in manufacturing in the Barking and Dagenham areas?

• Dagenham became the 22nd most deprived borough in England

• In 2015, the area had an unemployment rate of 9.8%, compared to just 4.5% in 2001

• In 2015, 27% of residents were earning below London’s living wage, compared to the average of 21%

What are the economic domains of deprivation?

• Income deprivation, which measures the proportion of people experiencing deprivation linked to low income

• employment deprivation, which measures the percentage of working age people who would like to work but cannot

What are the social domains of deprivation?

• education, skills and training deprivation

• health deprivation and disability

• crime

• barriers to housing and services

What are the environmental domains of deprivation?

Living environment deprivation— this measures local environmental quality, including housing quality and external features

What 4 ways can the success of regeneration be measured?

• economic— increased employment and income

• social— lower levels of deprivation

• demographic— improved life expectancy and health

• environmental— e.g. reduced pollution and dereliction

What are the main sources of investment in an urban regeneration project?

The private and the public sector, and it is often a mixture of both.

Give an example of a private sector investment in regeneration in London.

Westfield shopping centre in London, which is now Europe’s largest shopping centre, is an example of retail led regeneration. It has created 10,000 new jobs

Give an example of public sector investment in regeneration in London.

London 2012 Olympic Games— £9.3 billion was spent on hosting the Games, and these costs were recovered through ticketing, TV sponsorship etc. It was delivered on time, under budget and at a profit.

Give an example of private-public investment in regeneration in London.

The London Docklands regeneration. This involved a partnership with the government, which provided land and financial grants, and property developers, who ensured that the regeneration project would create economic growth, jobs and housing.