Inductive Reasoning and Arguments

A set of 60 vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts in inductive reasoning and argumentation.

Inductive Argument

An argument where the premises provide probable support for the conclusion.

Enumerative Induction

A form of inductive reasoning that generalizes from observed members of a group to conclusions about the entire group.

Target Population

The entire group or collection of individuals being studied.

Sample Members

The specific members of the target population that are observed.

Relevant Property

The property of interest in an inductive argument.

Strong Inductive Argument

An argument that provides probable support to its conclusion.

Weak Inductive Argument

An argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion.

Cogent Argument

An inductively strong argument with true premises.

Hasty Generalization

Drawing a conclusion about a group based on a sample that is too small.

Biased Sample

A sample that does not accurately represent the target population.

Sample Size

The number of individuals included in a sample.

Representative Sample

A sample that mirrors the target group in relevant characteristics.

Margin of Error

The difference between the sample result and the true population value.

Confidence Level

The probability that the sample accurately reflects the target population within the margin of error.

Self-Selecting Sample

A sample made up of individuals who volunteer to participate.

Random Sampling

A method of selecting a sample where each member of the target group has an equal chance of being chosen.

Statistical Syllogism

A type of inductive argument that applies a statistical generalization to a specific case.

Inductive Generalization

The process of inferring a conclusion about a group based on observations from a sample.

Analogy

A comparison between two or more things for the purpose of explanation or argument.

Analogical Induction

An inductive argument that compares two things that are similar in some respects to conclude they are similar in another respect.

Causal Claim

A statement asserting a cause-effect relationship between two phenomena.

Causal Argument

An inductive argument whose conclusion states a causal connection.

Mill's Methods

A set of methods for identifying causal relationships.

Method of Agreement

An inductive reasoning method where a single factor is common among several occurrences of a phenomenon.

Method of Difference

An inductive reasoning method where factors are compared to find differences that can indicate a cause.

Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

Combines both methods to increase the likelihood of identifying a cause.

Method of Concomitant Variation

A method used when two events are correlated to show a causal relationship.

Necessary Condition

A condition that must be present for an event to occur.

Sufficient Condition

A condition that guarantees an event will occur.

Causal Confusions

Mistakes in reasoning about cause and effect.

Coincidence

An occurrence of events that appear related but are not causally connected.

Post Hoc Fallacy (Logical fallacy)

Assuming that because one event follows another, it was caused by the first event.

Only in causal arguments

Statistical Generalization

A claim about what is true of most members of a group.

Sampling Error

Errors that occur when a sample does not accurately reflect the population.

Sampling Bias

A systematic error caused by non-random sampling.

Acceptable Premises (Statistical syllogisms)

The need to determine whether the premises of a statistical syllogism are based on strong evidence, such as reliable generalizations from large, randomly chosen samples.

Statistical Strength

The degree of certainty of a generalization; stronger claims (e.g., '99% of M are P') are more convincing than weaker claims (e.g., '65% of M are P').

Typical or Randomly Selected (Statistical syllogism)

Evaluation of whether the individual applied in a statistical syllogism is a typical member of the group, especially if they are randomly selected.

What is the difference between enumerative inductive and analogical induction?

Enumerative induction generalizes from observed members of a group to conclusions about the entire group, while analogical induction compares two similar things to conclude they share another quality.

Individually necessary and jointly sufficient

A condition where each premise is essential for the conclusion to hold, and together they fully account for the conclusion.
Cases in which a complete set of necessary conditions constitutes a sufficient condition for an event

Relevant Similarities (Analogical Inductions)

The more relevant similarities there are between the things being compared, the more probable the conclusion. Relevant similarities must be significantly connected to the conclusion being argued for, and finding irrelevant similarities does not strengthen the argument. Explanation may be required to clarify relevance, with the burden of proof on the proponent.

Relevant Dissimilarities (Analogical Inductions)

The more relevant dissimilarities (or disanalogies) between the things compared, the less probable the conclusion. Dissimilarities weaken analogical arguments, and identifying even one relevant dissimilarity may be sufficient to reject the argument.

The Number of Instances Compared (Analogical Inductions)

The greater the number of instances or cases showing relevant similarities, the stronger the analogical argument becomes.

Diversity among Cases (Analogical Inductions)

Dissimilarities between the items being compared weaken an argument by analogy. However, having several cases that exhibit similarities can strengthen the argument, particularly if those cases are diverse.

Inference to the best explanation

Form of inductive reasoning in which we reason from premises about a state of affairs to an explanation for that state of affairs

The essence of scientific thinking and key part of everyday problem-solving and knowledge acquisition

Phenomenon Q
E provides the best explanation for Q
Therefore, it is probable that E is true

Selective Attention

Tendency to observe and remember things that reinforce our beliefs and to gloss over and dismiss things that undercut those beliefs