GCSE Geography Paper 2 (Human)

Urban futures, Dynamic development, UK in the 21st century, Resource reliance, Fieldwork. 1h30m, 70 marks, 35% of GCSE

urbanisation

the process by which an increasing percentage of a country’s population live in towns & cities

more people now live in towns & cities than in rural areas, but urbanisation varies across the globe

ACs show the highest levels of urbanisation, with the lowest levels in africa & SE asia

urbanisation growth rate differs between & within countries globally

global urban trends

	Advanced	Emerging	Developing
Rate of urban growth	Slow or declining	Rapid	Fastest
Examples	UK, Germany, Japan, America	India, Russia, Brazil, China	Sub-Saharan countries - Rwanda & Ethiopia, Asian countries - Vietnam, Bangladesh, Philippines
Causes	Industrial revolution pulled population into developing urban areas at the time. Nowadays many people in are being pushed away from overcrowded cities. ACs tend to have good transport & communication networks so people can live in rural areas & commute / work from home	Key trade hub cities see greater growth due to investment from the government & TNCs – eg  Lagos, Shanghai, Mumbai, Sao Paulo, St Petersburg Trade like finance, electronics & manufactured goods	Most new economic development is concentrated in big cities through investments in low cost manufacturing of textiles, clothes & shoes Push-pull factors lead to higher rates of rural to urban migration Cities experience higher levels of natural increase in population

ACs have lower rates of urbanisation as towns & cities already exist

due to modern transport & communication urban areas are sprawling into rural regions to create conurbations, adding to the growth of urban areas

conurbations

an extended rural area typically consisting of several towns merging with the suburbs of a central city

due to modern transport & communication urban areas are sprawling into rural regions to create conurbations, adding to the growth of urban areas

megacities

cities with more than 10 million people. have a powerful attraction for people & businesses. influential cores with large peripheries

the largest growth of megacities is in asia eg tokyo

reasons for growth of cities

economic development encourages population growth leading to desirability of goods & services. all megacities act as service centres within the formal economic centre. but megacities in LIDCs (mumbai, dhaka) are also important manufacturing centres with thousands working in the informal economy

population growth: young people are drawn to live in megacities with their vibrancy, fast pace & opportunities. there’s also internal growth where people who have moved into cities have children, sustaining population growth (mexico city, mumbai, pearl river delta)

economies of scale: it’s cheaper to provide goods & services in one place than spread across several cities - financial savings for local governments in infrastructure provision. communication & transport are centralised, saving time & money

multiplier effect: a city prospering encourages inward investment, leading to more development & growth, generating further need for skills, labour & job growth. this cycle multiplies the positive effects & growth continues (san francisco & the digital development)

world cities

can be any size but exert particular influences around the globe. are considered prestigious, with status & power. they are critical hubs in the global economy

the 3 top (alpha) world cities are london, new york & tokyo. these are the financial centres of the world, each with smaller networks of world cities feeding into them

there are only 4 world cities in the southern hemisphere

urban primacy

some countries have urban primacy & exert dominance over the rest of the country. they’re usually cities with the largest concentration of urban population and don’t have to be country’s capital

• all economic growth is concentrated in the city to the cost of the city’s rural fringe

• political power becomes focused in the city & decisions affecting the whole country are made in primate cities, often benefitting the primate city rather than the whole country’s needs

• primate cities are a bigger draw for migrants & small cities miss out on new business & investments

• rapid primate growth concentrates urban problems eg pollution, poverty, crime, congestion

causes of urbanisation

modern growth of cities began with the industrial revolution in britain in the 19th century with the pull of work to factories in growing cities from the push of a harsh rural existance

urban living became linked to better literacy & education, improved health & a longer life expectancy through more access to health & social services. urban populations can enjoy cultural entertainment & experiences plus opportunities to participate in political debates & policies

main factors affecting the rate of urbanisation:

• speed of economic development: economic growth drives urbanisation. faster growth of secondary & tertiary employment sectors = faster growth of urbanisation

• rate of population growth: economic growth needs a supply of labour. this demand can be met through natural increase in urban population (slow) or rural-urban migration (more important as it attracts more people)

• counter urbanisation: people moving from an urban area into the surrounding rural region

• natural increase: accounts for 60% of urban population growth due to lower death rates & higher birth rates

importance of cities

people have always lived in cities & towns in order to trade goods & services

they’re essential to the development of a country’s economy & are centres of opportunity, entertainment, education, religion, culture, political administration, industry etc

urbanisation & growth in LIDCs

since the 1950s EDCs & LIDCs have seen rapid growth in urbanisation. there are 3 main reasons:

• mass rural-urban migration due to population growth & lack of resources in rural areas (push factors)

• lure of the city & opportunities (pull factors), although many find informal employment & poor housing

• natural increase - development + improving health care = lower infant mortality & death rates but still high birth rates

reasons for rapid growth in rates of urbanisation:

• most new economic development is in big cities

• push-pull factors lead to high rates of rural to urban migration

• cities experience higher levels of natural increase in population

• decline of industry in ACs - industry moving to EDCs & LIDCs to take advantage of a cheaper workforce leads to industrial growth in emerging countries & pulls people from rural regions to urban areas with hope of better life & employment

push-pull factors

push factor - the reality of the current situation, what makes the person consider moving

pull factor - the perceived outcome, what the person imagines the move will being to the place of destination

push-pull factors are unique to each person depending on their end goal. they can be divided into social, economic, political & environmental

consequences of rapid growth in LIDCs - informal settlements

informal settlements are a problem in LIDCs & EDCs, especially in megacities, when the availability & affordability of housing can’t keep up with the rate that urban population increases, so people build their own homes on vacant land using scrap materials

these are unplanned & unregulated with little sanitary facilities, freshwater or reliable energy supply. they are usually built on land not owned by them in areas of no economic value, on the urban fringes, along main roads / railways, or clinging to the side of steep slopes

some cities have mega-slums - very large, overcrowded areas in megacities

informal settlements present risks like fire, flooding & landslides. they typically suffer from:

• poor, overcrowded small housing built close together with inadequate materials & with uncertain electricity supplies

• restricted access to water

• little/no sanitation facilities & no solid waste disposal = polluted & degraded environment

• inadequate health facilities + poor living conditions = increased sickness & death rates

• insecure living conditions & people may be forcibly removed by landowners / authorities

other challenges are the amount of waste produced as the city grows, air pollution, sewage & toxic chemical pollution of waterways, congestion on poorly managed / planned road systems, lack of public transport, lack of qualified doctors, teachers etc, high levels of unemployment & crime, informal employment & child exploitation

urbanisation pathway

the differences between ACs, EDCs & LIDCs can be shown as a pathway over time. countries become more urban as they develop economically

as they move through stagers the pace begins to slow & flatten out / decline as counter urbanisation gains speed

urban trends in ACs

urban settlements first appear as a result of agglomeration - people gather together in one area to sell goods & live, small trading posts & villages begin to develop

as towns grow they expand outwards in suburbanisation, which adds to the built up area, creating new suburbs made up of mostly houses but also including places of employment & services

urban settlements continue to prosper & grow, people move out of the town / city altogether & commute to work from dormitory settlements where people only sleep. people continue to have links with the town / city they left & still make use of urban services, shops, education & healthcare

urban sprawl

urban growth if left unchecked leads to urban sprawl, where cities become too large. this creates issues like:

• loss of farmland to build new homes

• loss of green spaces like school fields & parks which are built on

• impact on ecosystems - natural & built (removal of trees = more pollution etc)

• creation of impermeable surfaces & surface run off

in the UK the government introduced green belts to limit outward urban growth. changes were at urban fringes due to:

• availability of space for housing / retail / manufacturing

• cost of land is cheaper to develop

• better access to main aerial routes for transport

• many services are located at the urban fringe - hospitals, superstores, specialist manufacturing etc

counter urbanisation

the movement of people from an urban area into the surrounding rural region for causes like:

• mobility & accessibility: higher personal car ownership, increase in public transport & road development = easier to access rural areas

• increased wealth makes housing & travel more affordable

• agricultural decline (mechanisation of farming) creates the availability of more land for housing

• green belts mean people need to go further out to get a rural life

• second homes & early retirement increase the movement of people from the city → country

re-urbanisation

the movement of people back into cities from the surrounding area as a result of lots of factors:

• increase in jobs

• regeneration of older areas through rebuilding / development (factories → apartments)

• improvements in air quality

• improvements in safety

deindustrialisation

the closure of factories & industries leading to large areas of derelict land & buildings. this leads to suburbanisation & counter urbanisation due to lack of jobs & poor quality environment

more recently this has lead to re-urbanisation as areas are cleared / redeveloped

urban regeneration & re-imagining

urban regeneration is the investment of capital into the revival of old urban areas by improving what’s there or clearing it away & rebuilding

over time, older parts of urban areas suffer a decline - factories move elsewhere meaning job loss and quality of life & housing become poorer meaning people move away. urban blight sets in & the area needs to be brought back to life - urban regeneration

urban re-imagining is changing the image & reputation of an urban area & the way people view it - focusing on a new identity / function, changing the quality & appearance, etc. it’s a good opportunity for brownfield site development

london docklands was completely redeveloped & regenerated, and now has new industries, more executive services, homes, entertainment & leisure

urban generation + urban re-imaging together = rebranding. these processes add to the continued growth of urban regions

lagos

nigeria’s largest & most populous city. developed on the west side of the sheltered lagos lagoon, next to the bight of benin on the atlantic ocean. borders benin, niger, chad & cameroon

attracts 600,000 new residents annually, making it v diverse. There are a mix of rich & poor - 4 billionaires & 6,300 millionaires. access to water & energy is slowly improving & transport systems are getting better

importance of lagos

regional: lagos island is the financiancial hub of the city. 6,300 millionaires & 4 billionaires live in lagos. the CBD & eko atlantic development provide high skilled jobs, industrial areas & ports provide low skilled jobs

national: the city has well connected transport + a major international airport & a busy seaport providing raw materials for local industries. lagos is one of the world’s fastest growing megacities & is nigeria’s leading city for trade & economy. 80% of Nigerian industry is in lagos

international: the port on tin can island connects nigera to the world through global trade in oil. lagos provides headquarters for national & global companies eg shell nigeria. it has the fourth highest GDP in africa. growing fasion & flim industry (nollywood)

migration in lagos

migration has resulted in an overcrowded, congested & polluted city with pockets of high density populations eg informal settlements & gated communities. incomes in lagos are 4x higher than rural areas, contributing to its rapidly growing population

migration into lagos from rural areas brings a wide range of ethnic groups, giving lagos a diverse ethnic population. international migration from neighbouring countries eg chad & niger. migrants from the USA, UK & china are employed by foreign businesses, mostly the oil industry

mainland lagos has an increase of 600,000 people per year, spreading north & west

wealthy areas eg victoria island with gated communities + informal settlements eg makoko (250,000 people) close to the lagoon with many people working in informal sector / fishing in the lagoon. makoko is built out into the lagoon & floods regularly

rural to urban migration = high rate of natural increase + youthful population. push factors:

• poor education & health services

• crop damage due to droughts & floods

• low wages & long hours for subsistence farming

• oil pollution has degraded the land

• climate change brings unreliable rainfall to north of nigeria

history of lagos

1900: small fishing village on lagos island with access to the lagoon, atlantic & marshlands

1965: discovery of oil in niger delta = expansion across lagos island. people spread to victoria island then onto the mainland, where lagos grew in a linear pattern along the major transport routes

1990: inward migration saw rapid expansion of lagos including rise in slums. maroko’s informal settlement was cleared in 1990 but quickly redeveloped along with others on the mainland. lagos & victoria islands were connected to the mainland by 3 bridges. tin can island container port increased global links

2010: lagos officially becomes a megacity. eko atlantic begins development in 2009 on reclaimed land south of victoria island to create a new coastal city & try to solve the shortage of housing

2020: urban sprawl pushes further NW & includes areas around the airport. construction work on the 38km 4th mainland bridge was due to begin in 2019 but was delayed

lagos culture

city is at the heart of the film industry in africa (nollywood) - producing 1,500 films a year

although western influence is becoming more popular, traditional clothing, street vendors & markets are still popular, with lagos museum being built as part of the redevelopment of the onikan area of the city as a cultural hub

there is a growing arts scene & large street dance parties + events like the Badagry Festival, Lagos Street Carnival & the One Lagos Fiesta, gaining international coverage

home to afrobeat & afro hip-hop music movement, attracting musicians from all over the world

lagos ethnicity

over 250 ethnic groups represented due to heavy migration from other parts of nigeria & surrounding countries

originally inhabited by the Awori group of the Yoruba people

small minorities of american, british, east indian, chinese, white zimbabwean, greek, syrian, lebanese & japanese people

over 500 different languages spoken - english, pidgin & yoruba most common

lagos housing

77 people moving to lagos every hour means housing is v limited - renting is expensive & buying a home almost imposibble

housing ranges from skyscrapers, luxury apartments & high rise flats in the city centre to colonial mansions & gated communities on victoria island to tin shacks on the outskirts

very few people can afford to buy their own homes & with no government social housing roughly 2/3 of the population live in informal settlements - largest makoko

with the shortage of housing, a new urban district eko atlantic city is being built on land reclaimed from the sea & is protected by an 8.5km sea wall, helping to build confidence in lagos as a ‘go to’ city

lagos leisure

football is the national sport & some of the best players in europe are nigerian

as an emerging city leisure activities are limited & aimed at tourists, but they take advantage of the beaches & scenery - key areas eg landmark leisure beach, lekki leisure lake

lagos consumption

as the population rises so does the demand for resources. lagos consumes ½ of nigeria’s energy output

as more people become wealthier there’s greater demand for consumer goods so more resources are used

shopping malls & a mix of food markets & street vendors

growth of commercial & industrial zones with overall improvement to economic development & standard of life

lagos challenges: informal settlements

60% of the population live in informal settlements, typically found on unfavourable land eg swamps & the lagoon

the largest is makoko where homes are built on wooden slits in the low-lying lagoon due to the risk of flooding

the houses (huts) are built illegally with communal toilets & waste goes directly into the lagoon, polluting the water

there’s no running water & 3km to the communal water point

electricity is obtained illegally by connecting to the city’s supply

lagos challenges: informal sector jobs

60% of people work in informal jobs - scavenging through waste in rubbish dumps, becoming street vendors or working on the docks

street vendor stalls can be bulldozed to make way for new developments

informal jobs pay very little, require long hours & have no job protection

crime rates are high including gun / gang violence & drugs

one primary school but few parents can afford to send their children regularly

lagos health & services

rapid urbanisation causes dangerous levels of traffic congestion & pollution. there’s a lack of health care services & many people can’t afford to access it

most people don’t have access to clean water / sanitation leading to disease & illness eg cholera & diarrhoea

the stagnant water of the lagoon is a breeding ground to mosquitoes leading to the spread of diseases of malaria

lagos waste disposal

only 40% of the 10,000 tonnes of daily waste produced is collected & taken to large rubbish dumps eg olusosun

many of the dumps contain toxic waste where people pick over the waste to make a living. many of these people have no formal training / protective clothing & are exposed to unsafe material

sustainability in lagos

many ways the challenges in lagos are managed:

• sustainable urban development: improving residents’ lives now without destroying opportunities & the environment for later generations

• top-down action: intervention by local & national government & business projects

• bottom-up action: communities & individual action

• help from NGOs: funding by donations eg wateraid, educate nigeria etc

lagos sustainability: waste disposal

the authorities encourage residents of makoko to recycle plastics, metals & paper

some of the waste to the olusosun dump is diverted to makoko where it’s gathered up, compressed, covered in sawdust & sand to create new land in the lagoon. this helps alleviate waste + create new land for residents

the lagos state integrated waste management project is an initiative trying to improve sustainability by reducing the amount of waste that goes to landfill sites & reducing the air pollution landfill causes

the world bank is financing a project to collect waste from food markets to turn into compost. this stops the waste going to landfill sites where it releases methane as it decomposes. instead a useful product is created that can be used to fertilise farming land, increasing food supplies

where waste ends up in rubbish dumps the government aims to generate electricity from it by burning the methane released. this happens already at ikosi fruit market where electricity generated from rotting fruit is used to provide lighting. a larger scale project at olusosun involves pipes placed into rubbish to collect the methane & take it to generators. the electricity generated will be used to power the dump

lagos sustainability: air pollution

being managed through improving the road & rail networks. the new light railway will reduce the amount of traffic & congestion + reduce air pollution

residents are encouraged to use public transport / car share to reduce congestion & air pollution

public info & education have seen a reduction in the amount of raw sewage entering the waterways. stricter pollution controls are enforces with factories being fined for polluting the waterways

lagos sustainability: solutions to transport issues

alternative transport options eg rail are being created. the new light railway will reduce the amount of traffic & congestion + reduce air pollution

a fourth mainland bridge + improvements on 360 inner roads restored are due to begin construction

google maps & radio bulletins advise on traffic issues

businesses are encouraged to allow people to work from home / work flexible hours to avoid rush hour traffic

lagos: eko atlantic

new development 10km² created from 3,000,000 m³ of sand

aim is to provide luxury homes for 250,000 residents with tree lined streets and world class sewage & waste disposal systems. want to welcome 150,000 daily commuters

investment comes from the lagos state government & private companies eg south energyx nigeria

but with 1.7 million people living in squatter settlements some have criticised the project as a waste of money

lagos: makoko floating school

built in 2014 & designed to take up to 300 children. designed by a nigerian architect with local people & part funded by NGOs & the UN development programme. floats so to adapt to rising sea levels

development

the improvement in people’s standard of living - can be:

• economic: growth of the economy due to changes in economic activities & technology

• social: improvement in people’s health, education, water & food supply

• environmental: more sustainable use of the environment

country distribution

the IMF classifies countries into 3 groups - advanced countries (ACs), emerging & developing countries (EDCs) & low income developing countries (LIDCs)

ACs: good level of services, high GNI per capita, high standard of living for most of population, tertiary economic activities are dominant

EDCs: increasing levels of wealth, secondary economic activities increasing & primary decreasing, more exports, increased wages

LIDCs: high levels of poverty, low GNI per capita, low standard of living for most of population

measures of development: GNI per capita

Gross National Income - the average wealth per person in a country. dividing it by population means better comparisons can be made between countries

an average meaning variation in wealth is hidden - countries can have v different distributions but the same GNI per capita

not all wealth of a country is included - some is hidden eg income created in informal employment. doesn’t give any info about social / environmental development

measures of development: HDI

Human Development Index - a combined measure of average achievement in key areas of human development, health, education & standard of living calculated using:

• life expectancy at birth

• mean years of schooling for adults (25 yrs)

• expected years of schooling for children at school entering age

• GNI per capita

countries can be divided into 4 groups - very high (VHHD), high (HHD), medium (MHD) & low (LHD)

scored from 0 - 1. norway has the highest (0.957), niger has the lowest (0.394)

measures of development: happy planet index

a measure of sustainable wellbeing that doesn’t include economic development indicators. scored between 0-100

HPI = (experienced wellbeing x life expectancy) / ecological footprint per capita

experienced wellbeing = how satisfied people are with their lives (gallup world poll)
ecological footprint per capita = the amount of land needed to sustain the country’s resource consumption (WWF)

costa rica has frequently placed 1st above more developed countries. USA placed 122nd in the overall list below many poverty stricken countries eg haiti

well-being is highly subjective, ecological footprints of the least developed countries are lowed as people can’t afford to buy lots

factors affecting development

development isn’t a smooth continuous process & can occur for several reasons eg investment in agriculture improving food supplies improving health, improvements in power supplies to rural areas or improvements in access to education for women & overall literacy rates

it can be slowed, halted & reversed by war/conflict, disease, disasters or economic regression

human causes of uneven development - education, health, colonialism, politics, aid

physical causes of uneven development - climate, geographic location, natural hazards, natural resources

cycle of wealth

one of the key indicators for development. economic development creates wealth & if a country has a stable & effective government this leads to development

as the economy grows more people work & earn more money meaning the government can collect more tax & people have more disposable income to spend, increasing business profits

taxes & profits can be invested in future growth + infrastructure, education, healthcare etc

factors effecting development: education & health

linked to the wealth of a country. more wealth = can invest more in education & healthcare

a better educated population can help with development of secondary & tertiary economic activities, boosting the economy

a healthier population has a longer life expectancy & can work for longer, improving the economy

factors affecting development: colonialism

when in the past countries across the world were conquered & ruled by european countries

as a result european countries became wealthier by selling / using the natural resources of the countries they had conquered. this slowed development in colonies because the people weren’t ruling themselves & couldn’t invest in their own development

african people were enslaved & transported to other colonies to work on sugar & cotton plantations, further increasing european wealth

factors affecting development: politics

political unrest & corruption slows development

war & conflict slow development as money is spent on weapons & the conflict rather than development

factors affecting development: aid

the type of aid & whether it can reach the people determines whether it increases development

aid can lead to debt which countries struggle to repay, slowing development

factors affecting development: geography

climate: areas without extremes of climate tend to be more developed

geographic location: land locked countries find it harder to trade as they don’t have access to ports & goods must pass through other countries. flat fertile land is better for growing crops & building

natural hazards: rebuilding & dealing with impacts of these is expensive & reduces the amount of money that can be invested in development

natural resources: some countries have more valuable / abundant natural resources, increasing their income

factors keeping countries in poverty - debt

most countries in the world borrow money, but the effect of debt on LIDCs is greater because they borrow more & have less money available to repay it

repaying debt means a country has to reduce spending on infrastructure, education & healthcare. usually interest is charged on the debt so countries end up owing far more than they borrowed

factors keeping countries in poverty - trade

the exchange of goods between countries

most trade in the world is between ACs & the majority of it is controlled by TNCs that are mostly owned by & based in ACs

ACs mostly trade manufactured goods & services with prices going up

LIDCs mostly trade natural resources with fluctuating prices, impacting income

TNC

Trans-National Corporation - a business operating in at least 2 countries

HQs + research & development in ACs, production & manufacturing centres in EDCs / LIDCs because labour is cheaper & environmental regulations are fewer, allowing higher profits

they bring both advantages & disadvantages to LIDCs:

• jobs aren’t always secure & can be relocated at any time

• money usually goes back to HQs in ACs

• wages are usually v low

• employees work long hours in poor conditions

• provide new job opportunities, gaining new skills

• new tech (eg computers) & skills are brought to poorer countries

• money is spent to improve local infrastructure eg roads

factors keeping countries in poverty - political unrest

a situation where people are protesting against the government. 3 main factors that slow development:

unstable / undemocratic government: gov usually fails to invest in healthcare, education, social care, infrastructure development or improving the economy, leading to further instability & slowing development

corruption: politicians spend funds to their own benefit rather than improving the lives of their citizens. major development project contracts are given to family / friends at highly increased costs with minimal spending on materials

conflict: civil war, terrorism & tribal disputes use valuable resources & distract governments from development. conflict means the country loses money as fewer people work, military equipment is expensive and buildings & land are destroyed. also reduces the quality of life for population - loss of life, food, water & housing

ethiopia GDP per capita

$2,900

ethiopia literacy rate

52%

ethiopia life expectancy

67 years

ethiopia internet access

17%

ethiopia location

• east africa

• just above the equator

• landlocked - borders 6 countries

• near the red sea

western highlands: wettest - one long rainy season, cooler temps (15-35^o), good farming conditions but steep land makes it hard
central area: 2 rainy seasons & 1 dry season, unreliable rainfall, higher temps (25-40^o)
eastern lowlands: v hot (30-40^o), little unreliable rain, alternating wet & dry seasons, livestock but land overuse causes soil erosion & desertification

ethiopia agriculture

• 80% of population works in agriculture

• 80% of exports is agriculture

• 40% of GDP is agriculture

crops include coffee, pulses (eg beans), oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane & vegetables. exports are mostly agricultural & coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. ethiopia is africa’s 2nd biggest maize producer

through its investment promotion agency ethiopia has been encouraging business investment for decades using incentives eg import, export & income tax reduction / exemption and providing investors with access to land to lease for up to 50yrs

trade deficit

when imports are greater than exports

ethiopia has a trade deficit of $14 billion. in order to move through rostow’s model this needs to reduced to allow the country to spend more money on improvements to services eg infrastructure, education & healthcare

ethiopia exports

coffee is top export

ethiopia transports a narrow range of primary produce (mainly food & flowers), which is vulnerable to climate change, global economics & price fluctuations. there are also issues with ground transportation & food storage, affecting the quantity & quality of yield

relies on agricultural exports - flowers, veg, livestock - that’s v dependent on good weather / yield, meaning ethiopia can lose exports quickly & easily

ethiopia imports

top 5 - petroleum, trucks, fertilisers, construction, wheat

rostow’s model of development

predicts how a country’s level of economic development changes over time from primary industry to secondary industry to tertiary & quaternary

1. traditional society: farming, fishing, forestry. little trade

2. pre-conditions for take off: manufacture, infrastructure, international trade begins

3. take off: rapid growth, industrialisation, increasing wealth

4. drive to maturity: economy grows, standards of living rise, use of technology

5. high mass consumption: high population, mass produced goods, high consumption

ethiopia millennium development goals

in 2000 world leaders from 189 countries agreed & signed the millennium development goals aimed at cutting world poverty in half by 2015 - 8 main goals with specific targets. there’s been mixed progress on reaching the targets across the world

1 - eradicate extreme hunger: population living in poverty dropped to 29%, 40% of kids are malnourished, 28% of population have insufficient access to food

3 - promote gender equality: 93% of girls are in primary school, greater representation of women in government, unemployment is higher for women & they’re still required to do traditional roles

TNCs in ethiopia - hilton hotels

ethiopia has increasingly strong global links. as part of the UN strategy there’s global support from other nations to help ethiopia meet their development goals. a range of TNCs have begun opearting in ethiopia in primary, secondary & some tertiary industries. one is hilton hotels

• predicted over 1 mil jobs

• ~800k tourists expected

• predicted to contribute $2 bil to GDP

• economy can diversify

• leakage of profits going back to ACs not Ethiopia

• tourism & infrastructure isn’t developed enough to support 5* hotels

• jobs are seasonal, low paid, long hours, unskilled & highest paying ones go to foreigners

• increase in tourism could lead to cultural clashes between locals & foreigners & resentment towards tourism

aid

assistance given from one country to another eg money, equipment, training, loans

rebalances global inequality, repayment for benefits ACs got from colonialism, everyone should have the right to essential resources

countries may become dependent on aid, donors may give to the wrong things, corrupt governments use aid for the wrong things

foreign vs NGO aid

foreign aid: from the government of another country

NGO aid: from a NGO eg unicef

voluntary aid vs ODA

voluntary aid: given by individuals / companies & distributed by charities or NGOs

Official Development Assistance: given by the government of a country paid for by their taxes

short term vs long term aid

short term emergency relief: given to cope with immediate problems caused by disasters eg natural disasters, wars

long term development assistance: helps improve people’s lives & develop their countries

multi-lateral vs bi-lateral aid

multi-lateral aid: given by countries through international bodies eg worldbank

bi-lateral aid: given by one country to another

aid in ethiopia

charities like oxfam, farm africa & mission aviation fellowship have been working in ethiopia for over 30yrs

oxfam provides goat aid where a girl is given goats to look after, helping with the family + encouraging equality & responsibility

debt relief means ethiopia’s debt has gone from $10bil to $7bil

ethiopia depends on over $500mil a year of aid

top down development

large scale, advanced, expensive schemes

require loans eg from NGOs / other countries

decisions are made by the government & local people are rarely involved

top down development in ethiopia - gibe III dam

• generates renewable energy to export - could make $400mil annually (more than most valuable export)

• will help provide electricity to the country - rural population has very little access

• potential to reduce impact of froughts

• flood protection

• lots of land is lost - homes & farming land that people rely on

• lost land = potential for conflict between ethnic groups

• involved a loan - impacting economy

• alters seasonal flooding & reduces downstream volume of river

bottom up development

often run / supported by NGOs but led by local population

target specific small scale needs with an immediate effect

bottom up development in ethiopia - goat aid

• helps reduce hunger & poverty - products from goats can be sold

• promotes gender equality & responsibility

• positive multiplier effect - give goats to others

• improves development without causing as many social negatives as top down

• goats help fertilise soil, stopping soil erosion & desertification

• population could become overly reliant on charity work

• could cause conflict between those who benefited & those who havent

• only benefits a few people - helping lots would take lots of resources & time

• not large enough benefit to increase GDP / development of country as a whole

• if goats get ill more money needs to be spent taking care of them

ethiopia history

UK location

• western europe

• 35km off the coast of france

• coastline along the north atlantic ocean, north sea, irish sea, english channel & celtic sea

uk: the political union between the nations of england, wales, scotland & northern island. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. as a whole is a sovereign state, but each nation is a country in its own right

great britain: england, scotland, wales & associated islands. no norther ireland

british isles: purely geographical term - great britain, ireland (northern + republic) & all smaller islands

the isle of man and channel islands aren’t part of the UK but are crown dependencies - self governing but UK is responsible for defence & international relations

uk physical features

scotland & wales - mountainous regions. northern ireland has 3 main mountainous regions. the pennines are a ridge of mountains running down northern england. few roads / settlements but beautiful scenery & sparsely populated

coastal areas are low-lying especially in S & E - land is flat & more suited to settlements, roads & railways

the rest is made up of gently rolling hills & isolated high grounds & moors

uk precipitation

highest in the north & west - average 2800mm annually. lowest in south & east - average 500-750mm annually

rivers transport precipitation from mountains to sea + natural lakes acting as storage for rain

uk relief rainfall

the atlantic ocean + prevailing south westerly winds bring warm moist air. when it reaches the UK it’s forced to rise over the mountain ranges in the west, cooling & condensing to form clouds that rain. this leaves only dry air to carry on over the crest of the mountain, creating a rain shadow (dry area on the other side)

uk frontal rainfall

because of its position the warm SW winds meet the descending northerly cold polar air. the warm air is forced to rise over the cold air, cooling & condensing into heavy rain

this happens across the British isles & is the most common reason for rain

uk convectional rainfall

occurs when the ground heats the air above it. happens in the summer, particularly during heatwaves

the sun heats the ground which releases heat, warming the air above. warm air rises rapidly then cools & condenses to form clouds which can produce heavy rainfall & thunderstorms

uk water stress

rain is unevenly spread, leaving parts of the nation under or over supplied

most rain falls in the N & W but the greatest water demand is in the E & S (higher population, agriculture, industry)

solutions:

• transfer water from wet areas to drier areas via pipeline eg water from north wales → liverpool

• construction of new resevoirs to capture & store water in the east eg ardingly & arlington resevoirs in sussex

• water conservation - repairing leaky pipes, encouraging people to use less water, installing water meters in new homes

UK population density

uneven. average is 281 people per km² but in urban areas (eg london) this can be over 5000, but in rural areas it can be less than 50

most populous region is the SE with cities (london, birmingham, manchester) & areas with attractions, employment & entertainment. lowest density in northern scotland - mountainous landscape, unpredictable climate. the rest has a high density population due to gentle hills, moderate climate & excellent transport links

uk land use

most of the UK is farmland & divided into grass (52%), arable (20%) & forest (12%). the rest is urban (14%), water (1%) and other (1%)

mountainous regions have rough pastures & moorlands, with a harsh climate & poor soil so crop growth is limited. main farming is sheep

grasslands in the west have a mild wet climate, ideal for rich pastures for beef, dairy & sheep

in the higher lands of wales rough pasture is good for sheep farming

arable farming in the S & E england due to warmer sunnier drier climate, suitable for crop & flower growing

coniferous woodlands in northern england, wales & scotland - poor soils & remote areas use for timber production

urban areas increase & growth is spiralling outwards. some cities are contained in a green belt (eg london) but others (eg southhampton) are spread over a greater distance

uk housing shortage

rise in population + growth of urban areas = housing shortage

rn the UK needs to built 250,000 homes a year but only ½ of that is being built. this means house prices are rising & becoming too expensive due to high demand

there’s also local opposition to new planning of housing estates, green belts preventing urban sprawl & reducing opportunity to build new houses & the price of land rising due to demand

uk population trends

UK population is 69 million people

over the last 50 years it’s grown by nearly 20% (10 mil people). by 2030 its expected to reach 70 million people

growth is due to natural increase (births greater than deaths) and net migration (in migration greater than out migration)

migration

the movement of people across an official boundary, either internationally or nationally, with the intention of creating a permanent place of residence (permanent = more than 1yr)

2 types:

• internal / national

• external / international

impact of national migration on the UK

before the 18th century most of the population lived in rural areas, relying on agriculture for employment

during the 19th century the industrial revolution saw a rapid rise in the number of people concentrated in cities as they migrated from rural areas to find employment in the better paying secondary sector

now the uk is in the post industrial phase & the population is spread around the cities with urban sprawl

internal migration has led to the population density of the uk - majority of people live in urban areas

impact of international migration on UK

waves of migrants

• during the 1850s irish famine

• in the 1950s from the west indies seeking employment

• from eastern europe after EU enlargement & removal of barriers

• refugees from syria & ukarine etc

10 million of the 60 million usual residents in the UK were born outside the UK (17%) - 1 in 6 people

india is the most popular country of origin + pakistan, ireland, poland

uk immigration age structure

most immigrants are young with young families of their own

in 2021 nearly 30% of births were to non UK born women

the total fertility rate increased for uk born woman to 1.54, but the rate for non uk women stayed at 2.03

in 2021 the most common country of origin for non uk born fathers was pakistan & romania was the most common for mothers

uk changing age structure

demographic transition model

based on historical population trends of 2 demographic characteristics (birth & death rate) to suggest stages that a countries total population growth rate cycles through as it develops economically

illustrates the 5 generalised stages of population change that countries pass through as they develop, based on the changes in western countries eg the UK. shows how birth & death rates change over time & how this affects the overall population as the country develops. the gap between birth & death rates is natural change

1. high fluctuating birth & death rates, population low & stable

2. early expanding as birth rates stay high but death rates rapidly fall & natural change increases

3. late expanding as birth & death rates decline rapidly - rapid natural change

4. low fluctuating birth & death rates, population stays high & stable, little natural change

5. decline? death rate increases but birth rates decline further, natural change falls

it’s unclear if the UK has entered stage 5 as this is unsustainable & not desirable. japan & berlin have & are struggling to find enough people to look after their young & old dependents

uk ageing population

~18% of the UK population are over 65

there’s more older people in coastal areas especially in E & SW england - popular due to warmer temps. lower in northern ireland & in big cities

urban core areas have the youngest average ages - 39 in major conurbations, 46 in remote rural areas

UK ethnic diversity

18% of the population belong to a black, asian, mixed or other ethnic group (2021), an increase from 14% in 2011

in bristol 28% of the population is from an ethnic minority group (up from 15% in 2011). this change has been driven by polish, somalian & indian people. bristol hosts 45+ religions, 187 countries of birth & 91+ main langs spoken

the mix of cultures means bristol’s entertainment & hospitality industries are world famous. the food industry is wide & varied and the community is accepting of new cultures

the st paul’s carnival is hosted to integrate & celebrate bristol’s ethnic diversity & brings visitors from all over the country, boosing bristol’s economy

economic changes

a country’s industrial structure = the % of people performing economic activities

an economic activity is the producting / buying / selling of goods & services

economic activities can be grouped in to 4 sectors:

• primary: the growth / extraction of raw materials - farming, fishing, mining, forestry

• secondary: materials being processed to product a finished product - manufacture, food processing, factories, clothes, steel production etc

• tertiary: the provision of a service - nurses, lawyers, shop assistants, chefs

• quaternary: provision of specialist info / knowledge - research & development, hi-tech scientists, information technology

industrial revolution

when a country’s economy moves from mainly primary economic activities to secondary. the rapid growth of factories & mass production of products

uk economic changes

the uk has been in a post industrial stage since the 1970s and was the first country to experience the industrial revolution, and this involved the most significant economical changes - 1750 - 1900

• pre-industrial stage: most people worked in the primary sector (farming / mining)

• industrial stage: people moved into the secondary sector (manufacturing)

• post-industrial stage: emphasis on service based tertiary & quaternary sectors of research & ICT

uk clarke-fisher model

in the pre-industrial era most (70%) of people were employed in the primary industry & lived in rural areas

by the 1850s primary jobs were declining rapidly - 15% in 1900

in 1900 most people (>60%) worked in secondary jobs with tertiary jobs steadily increasing

by the 1950s tertiary jobs overtook secondary ones

from 1970s+ there’s a steady rise in the quaternary sector

by 2000 >70% of people were employed in tertiary jobs