THEORETICAL GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH

Bilateral linguistic sign

a sign consisting of a signifier (form) and a signified (meaning), where in grammar the signified is an abstract grammatical concept (e.g., "plurality", "past tense") rather than a physical object

Language vs. Speech (Langue vs. Parole)

Language is the abstract system of signs, rules, units, and paradigms (potential), whereas Speech is the concrete use of that system in acts of production and utterances (actualized)

Competence (Chomsky)

the alternative generative term for language (langue), representing the internalized knowledge of words and grammar possessed by a native speaker

Performance (Chomsky)

the alternative generative term for speech (parole), representing how a speaker uses linguistic knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension

Linguistic schema (Hjelmslev)

the glossematic alternative term used to define language (langue) as an abstract underlying structure

Linguistic usage (Hjelmslev)

the glossematic alternative term used to define speech (parole) as the concrete realization of the underlying schema

Code (Jakobson)

the functionalist alternative term for language (langue), representing the shared system of signals used by communicators

Message (Jakobson)

the functionalist alternative term for speech (parole), representing the actualized verbal product sent from a speaker to a receiver

Segmental lingual units

linear units of language that consist of phonemes and form strings of various lengths, including morphemes, words, and sentences

Supra-segmental lingual units

units of language that have no independent existence and accompany segmental units to modify meaning, including intonation, accents, pauses, and word-order patterns

Same segmental units, different supra-segmental

a phenomenon where identical linear segments yield different grammatical meanings due to supra-segmental changes (e.g., "He is at home." vs. "Is he at home?")

Supra-segmental units form

the secondary line of speech that structurally accompanies the primary phonemic line

Hierarchy (in Grammar)

a structure in which the units of any higher level are formed by the units of the lower level, where each level is characterized by its own specific functional features

Phoneme

the level 1 unit of the language hierarchy, characterized as non-meaningful (a corteme) and functioning strictly to differentiate meanings

Morpheme

the level 2 unit of the language hierarchy, characterized as the smallest meaningful unit (a signeme) whose function is to convey abstract significative meaning

Word / Lexeme

the level 3 unit of the language hierarchy, characterized as a meaningful signeme whose primary function is nominative (naming referents)

Phrase / Phraseme (denoteme)

the level 4 unit of the language hierarchy, characterized as a meaningful signeme whose function is complex nomination

Sentence / Proposeme

the level 5 unit of the language hierarchy, characterized as a meaningful signeme whose primary function is predication (affirmation, negation, modality)

Dicteme (supra-phrasal)

the level 6 unit of the language hierarchy, characterized as a meaningful signeme whose function is to maintain the unity of a topic at the text level

Syntagmatic relations (in praesentia)

linear, combinatory relations between units present simultaneously in the same spoken or written sequence (e.g., word order within a phrase)

Paradigmatic relations (in absentia)

substitutional, oppositive relations between units that belong to a choice-set and do not co-occur, referred to by Saussure as "associative relations"

Plane of content [план содержания]

all the meaningful, conceptual, and semantic elements contained in a language system

Plane of expression [план выражения]

all the material, formal, acoustic, and graphic units of a language system

Polysemy (in grammar)

a structural asymmetry where two or more distinct units of the plane of content correspond to a single formal unit of the plane of expression

Homonymy (in grammar)

a structural asymmetry where one formal unit of expression denotes completely separate grammatical meanings (e.g., the suffix -(e)s denoting 3rd person singular, genitive case, or plural)

Diachrony

the study or evolution of a language system and its grammatical structures through historical time

Synchrony

the study of a language system and its internal relations at a single, specific point in time

Lingual unit

a unit of language that has its own distinct structure, meaning, and function within a specific level of the language hierarchy

Systemic approach

a method of studying language that treats it as a structured set of interconnected elements, where each element derives its value from its relations to other elements within the system

Word-combination (phraseme)

a syntactic construction consisting of two or more notional words united by a subordinating or coordinating relationship, serving the function of complex nomination

Denoteme

the specific term for a lingual unit of the fourth hierarchical level (phrase) characterized by the function of complex nomination of an object or situation

Supra-sentential construction (supra-phrasal unity)

a lingual unit higher than the sentence, consisting of two or more sentences united thematically and structurally, also known as a dicteme

Nomination

the basic semantic function of a lingual unit (primarily a word or phrase) to name, denote, or refer to objects, phenomena, qualities, or events

Predication

the core grammatical function of a sentence (proposeme) to relate a predicate to a subject, establishing a proposition evaluated in terms of reality, unreality, affirmation, or negation

Corteme

a lingual unit of the lowest (first) hierarchical level (phoneme) characterized by the absolute absence of meaning, functioning to differentiate higher-level units

Signeme

a meaningful lingual unit belonging to levels 2 through 6 of the hierarchy (morpheme, word, phrase, sentence, dicteme) that possesses both a signifier and a signified

Syntagma

a linear combination of two or more lingual units at the same hierarchical level united by a combinatory relation, serving as the basic unit of syntagmatic analysis