AP PSYCH Unit 8 - Learning

Learning

 a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behaviour that occurs through experience. by learning we are able to adapt to our environment, we learn to expect and prepare for events and avoid unwanted results.

behaviorism

associative learning

We learn by association. Our minds make connections between events. can be positive or negative. tend to connect events when they occur in sequence.

observational learning

The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

stimulus

Anything that produces a change or sensation in a human or animal. Causes a response

response

Observable activity of a human or animal

motivation

Goal both inside and outside of an organism that causes any behavior

habituation

Decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentation of that stimulus i.e. Newlyweds stop noticing they are wearing a wedding ring.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning through association. It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly linked together to produce a new learned & involuntary response in a person or animal.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

the unlearned, naturally occurring response/reflex/action to the UCS.

Neutral Stimulus

a stimulus that does not elicit a response prior to conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, comes to trigger a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Acquisition

Refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established. In classical conditioning, it refers to the period of time when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response. Will eventually happen when the UCS does not follow the CS.

Spontaneous Recovery

reappearance of an extinct conditioned response after the passage of time, without further conditioning. if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR becomes extinct again.

(Stimulus) Generalization

the transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimulus.

(Stimulus) Discrimination

learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli.

Higher Order Conditioning

Also known as second order conditioning.a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Taste Aversion

After throwing up a food, it becomes a warning stimulus for getting sick → takes only ONE TIME

Counter conditioning

Can help us “unlearn” a response. Must pair the conditioned stimulus (Rat) with something that is incompatible with fear (Candy).

Operant Conditioning

The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishments

Law of Effect

Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently. Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently.

Skinner Box/operant chamber

comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response.

Reinforcement

A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again = increases behavior

Two types (positive and negative)

Positive & Negative

P.R: Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again. Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example

N.R: Removes something unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again. taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

Shaping

the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations.

gradually reinforce behaviors that come close to the target behavior

Primary Reinforcer

An innately reinforcing or satisfying stimulus. requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable or unpleasant

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer or experience. secondary reinforcers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers

Immediate Reinforcement

behaviors that immediately precede the reinforcer become more likely to occur but just as fast become extinct

Delayed Reinforcement

aka delayed gratification- forgoing small immediate reinforcement for a greater reinforcement later

Punishment

A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again = decreases behavior

Two types (positive and negative)

Positive & Negative

P.P: administer an aversive stimulus

N.P: Take away a desirable stimulus

Effective Punishment

Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior. Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough. Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does. Should be consistent

Negatives effects of punishment

Negatives of using punishment: punished behavior is suppressed but not forgotten, teaches discrimination, can teach fear, and physical punishment may increase aggression

Reinforcement discrimination

occurs when an organism learns to respond only to a specific stimulus and not to similar ones.

Involves distinguishing between stimuli.

Strengthened through consistent reinforcement.

Reinforcement generalization

happens when an organism responds similarly to different but related stimuli due to prior reinforcement.

Expands learning to new situations.

Can lead to adaptive or maladaptive behaviors.

Strengthened when reinforcement is applied across multiple stimuli.

Biofeedback

an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure

When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback

Learned helplessness

• is a mental state that arises in an organism that believes punishment is inescapable.

  • The organism stops trying even when success can be obtained.

Superstitious Behavior

You do things you know have no really impact on reality because that one time you did it, the team won

Instinctive drift

occurs when learned behaviors gradually revert to innate, instinctive behaviors, even after conditioning. Demonstrates limits of operant conditioning. Natural instincts interfere with learned behaviors. Common in animals trained for unnatural tasks.

Schedules of Reinforcement:

ratio schedules and interval schedules

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Results in faster acquisition. Leads to faster extinction

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforces a response only part of the time. Results in slower acquisition. Shows greater resistance to extinction later on

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined number of responses

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; interval (time) varies

Variable Ratio Schedule

 Reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (# or amount) varies

Cognitive Learning

Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable. Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory

Latent learning

is learning that occurs but is not apparent until there’s an incentive to demonstrate it

Cognitive Map

mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

Insight

is a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. “Aha!” moment

Intrinsic Motivation

is a desire to perform a behaviour effectively for it own sake, not as a result of external factors

Observational Learning

Occurs when an organism’s responses are influenced by the observation of others (modeling)

Social Learning Theory

developed by Albert Bandura, states that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling of others, rather than solely through direct reinforcement.

Modeling

people/things that people/children watch to influence their behavior, both positively and negitively (live and virtual models)

Vicarious Reinforcement

an individual increases a behavior after observing someone else (a model) receive reinforcement for that same action

Vicarious Punishment

where observing someone else (the "model") being punished for a specific behavior makes an observer less likely to imitate that action

Mirror neuron

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

aversive conditioning

a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus