Chapter 6: Qualitative Research

Qualitative data

Non-numerical data used to answer exploratory research questions, focusing on meanings, experiences, and context.

What are the 3 Approaches to Gathering Qualitative Data

1. Interviews

2. Observation and Fieldwork

3. Document Analysis

What are interviews in qualitative research?

Conversations between a researcher and participants used to gather in-depth information about experiences, perspectives, or behaviors.

What are unstructured interviews?

Open, conversational interviews guided by broad questions with no fixed format.

What are semi-structured interviews?

Interviews where all participants are asked the same set of questions but can elaborate freely.

What is a focus group?

A group interview where multiple participants discuss predetermined questions together.

-small group of people discuss a topic together, guided by a researcher.

What are the benefits of interviews?

• In-depth, rich data

• Captures personal experiences and perspectives

• Flexible and allows probing

What are the challenges of interviews?

• Time-consuming

• Researcher bias possible

• Responses may be influenced by interviewer

• Not generalizable (findings from a study cannot be applied to a larger population beyond the specific group studied.)

What is observation and fieldwork?

The researcher enters a natural setting to observe and sometimes participate in the behavior being studied.

What is participant observation?

A method where the researcher both observes and participates in the environment being studied.

-combination of observation with a degree of participation

What is ethnography?

An in-depth study aimed at understanding the culture of a group.

-where a researcher immerses themselves in a group or culture to understand their behaviors, beliefs, and way of life.

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

When people change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

What does “going native” mean?

When a researcher becomes too involved in the group and loses objectivity.

What are the benefits of observation/fieldwork?

• Real-world context

• Captures actual behavior (not just what people say)

• Rich, detailed data

What are the challenges of observation/fieldwork?

• Time-consuming

• Ethical concerns

• Researcher influence on behavior

• Risk of losing objectivity

What is document analysis?

The systematic collection, review, and interpretation of existing documents (texts, records, media).

What are the three steps of document analysis?

• Skim documents

• Read thoroughly and extract data

• Organize into themes/categories

What are the benefits of document analysis?

• Cost-effective

• Less time-consuming

• Documents don’t change (can be reviewed repeatedly)

What are the challenges of document analysis?

• May lack detail

• May be incomplete or biased

• Accuracy may be uncertain

• Documents may not exist

What is inductive reasoning?

A research approach that starts with specific observations and develops broader patterns or theories from them (common in qualitative research).

(Don't start with theory; they come up with one after research)

What is grounded theory?

A method of developing theories through systematic collection and analysis of qualitative data, especially through coding.

-“I use those patterns to build a theory through coding”

What is coding in qualitative research?

The process of organizing and labeling qualitative data into categories or themes.

What are the 3 Steps of Coding

1. Open Coding

2. Axial Coding

3. Selective Coding

What is Open Coding?

The first step where data is broken down into initial categories and concepts.

-Breaking the data into small pieces and labeling everything you see.

What is Axial Coding?

The second step where relationships between categories are identified and organized into themes.

-Connecting and grouping your codes into broader categories.

What is Selective Coding?

The final step where core themes are refined and integrated into a larger explanation.

-What are the main themes

What is content analysis?

A qualitative method used to systematically analyze text or documents to identify patterns, themes, and meanings.

What is the purpose of content analysis?

• Identify themes and patterns

• Understand meanings in text

• Analyze communication or narratives

What is the NVDRS?

The National Violent Death Reporting System, a database that collects detailed information on violent deaths to support research and prevention.

What was the purpose of the NVDRS class exercise?

To analyze violent death cases (IPV-related) to understand patterns of escalation leading to homicide.

How was coding used in the NVDRS exercise?

• Open coding: identifying initial patterns in documents

• Axial coding: grouping patterns into themes

• Selective coding: refining themes into final conclusions

What is a codebook?

A structured list of codes, definitions, examples, and where they appear in the data.

What is intercoder reliability?

The level of agreement between different researchers coding the same data

What are the 3 types of qualitative research used in the in-class exercise?

• Interviews

• Observation & fieldwork

• Document analysis

(inclass exercise)

Example of interviews from your class exercise?

Students were asked open-ended questions about their motivations for studying criminal justice and their experiences.

Pros of interviews (from your exercise)?

• Captured personal motivations and experiences

• Allowed detailed responses

Cons of interviews (from your exercise)?

• Some participants gave incomplete answers

• Time-consuming

Example of observation/fieldwork from your class exercise?

Observing students in campus spaces (library, coffee shop) to see how they spend free time.

Pros of observation & fieldwork (from your exercise)?

• Real behavior observed

• Natural setting

Cons of observation & fieldwork (from your exercise)?

• Limited time (only ~20 minutes)

• Cannot know participants’ thoughts

• Behavior may be influenced by awareness

Example of document analysis from your class exercise?

Analyzing media coverage of the Jeffrey Epstein case to understand narratives about victims and power.

Pros of document analysis (from your exercise)?

• Access to existing data

• Useful for analyzing trends over time

Cons of document analysis (from your exercise)?

• Media bias

• Incomplete or selective reporting

What is triangulation?

Using multiple methods, data sources, or researchers to strengthen the validity of findings.

What are open-ended questions?

Questions without fixed response options, allowing participants to answer freely.

What are closed-ended questions?

Questions with predefined answer choices.

What is a major limitation of qualitative research?

Findings are not generalizable to larger populations.

What is a major strength of qualitative research?

Provides deep, detailed understanding of context and experiences.

Which of the following best describes the purpose of the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) and how it was used in the class content analysis assignment?

A database of violent death cases that provides detailed narratives and was used to identify patterns and themes through qualitative coding

Provide a general overview of the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) and explain how it was used in the class content analysis assignment. In your response, include the purpose of the NVDRS, the goal of the assignment, and a brief explanation of the coding process.

The National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) is a database that collects detailed information about violent deaths, including narratives from law enforcement and medical reports. Its purpose is to help researchers understand the circumstances and patterns surrounding violent deaths. In the class assignment, NVDRS documents were used to analyze intimate partner violence cases to better understand how violence escalates to homicide. Students conducted a content analysis by coding the documents. This involved open coding to identify initial patterns, axial coding to group these patterns into themes, and selective coding to refine the main findings. The goal was to identify common themes such as prior domestic violence, escalation, and weapon use.

A student groups initial codes like “weapon use,” “prior abuse,” and “separation” into broader categories such as “relationship instability” and “violence escalation.” Which stage is this?

Axial coding

During the NVDRS assignment, students highlighted phrases directly from the documents and created initial labels without predefined categories. This process is best described as:

Open coding

Which of the following best illustrates inductive reasoning in the NVDRS assignment?

Developing themes about escalation after reviewing case narratives

Why did students compare their individual codebooks in the group portion of the assignment?

To assess consistency in how data were coded

Which of the following is a limitation of using NVDRS documents for qualitative research?

The documents may not fully represent all aspects of the incident

A researcher concludes that all intimate partner violence cases follow the same pattern based on NVDRS findings from 20 cases. What is the main issue with this conclusion?

Overgeneralization from qualitative data

Which method from the in-class exercise would be MOST appropriate for studying how media language shapes perceptions of victims?

Document analysis

If a researcher becomes emotionally involved with IPV victims while analyzing NVDRS cases and begins to lose objectivity, this is best described as:

Going native

Which of the following best explains why the NVDRS assignment used qualitative methods instead of quantitative methods?

To explore patterns, meanings, and context within individual cases

How do incarcerated individuals use poetry to construct and communicate their lived experiences of confinement?

Incarcerated individuals use poetry as a way to express and communicate the emotional, psychological, and physical realities of confinement. In this poem, the speaker uses vivid imagery and metaphor, such as “these walls,” to represent the prison environment and the experiences it holds. Through repetition like “I seen many,” the poem highlights shared experiences such as violence, trauma, and emotional pain. Poetry allows the individual to convey feelings that may be difficult to express in other ways, including suffering, exhaustion, and hopelessness, while also documenting the lasting impact of incarceration. It serves as both personal expression and a reflection of collective experiences within prison.

How do themes of identity, transformation, and self-concept emerge in poetry written by incarcerated individuals?

Themes of identity, transformation, and self-concept emerge through the way individuals describe changes in themselves and others over time. In the poem, identity is shown as unstable, with lines like “the strongest flip and the toughest turn snitch,” suggesting that incarceration can alter a person’s sense of self. Transformation is also evident, as some individuals “become changed and humbled” or find faith, indicating personal growth. At the same time, the poem reflects a loss of identity through dehumanization, where individuals are reduced to marks on walls or memories of pain. These themes demonstrate how incarceration reshapes how individuals see themselves and their place in the world.

Which of the following codes is BEST supported by the lines “Year after year, Night after night!” and “Eventually growing old and small”?

Passage of time

Based on the poem “If These Walls Could Talk,” which of the following are valid qualitative codes represented in the text?

A. Trauma
B. Faith/Religion
C. Exhaustion
D. Passage of Time
E. Institutionalization / Prison Environment
F. Violence / Exposure to Death
G. Emotional Pain
H. Transformation / Personal Change
I. Dehumanization