General

Hans Morgenthau 2 quotes on power in international politics

• “International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power” 

• “Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always the immediate aim”  

What does power in GP mean

the ability of NSs to exert influence and control over other NSs, through various means, in line with their own national interest

Hard power definition

• the ability to achieve your objectives through coercion  

• Typically refers to the accumulation of military, economic and Structual power since this can compel obedience  

soft power definition

achievement of your aims through the attractiveness of your culture 

military power definition

• Not only military size but it’s global reach = states ability to deploy anywhere at any time  

• Incl: naval strength, air force capacity, technological capacities, nuclear weapons, drones, intelligence and increasingly cyber technology 

November 2024 - Russia and Ukraine and states involved example of military power

• NSs involved in the Russian Ukraine conflict were escalating in the anticipation of Trumps presidency.

• US (and UK) permission to use long-range missiles into Russian territory was matched by Putin’s decision to …..

• deploy 10,000 North Korean troops; first use of hypersonic missiles; and relaxing Russia’s Nuclear weapon protocol  

US/UK military power seen in Syria 2017

• To stop President Assad from launching further alleged chemical attacks, US/UK  bombed Syrian weapon sites in 2017

• sending a strong signal to Russia and Iran that the USA was still a significant influence in the region.  

North Korea and USA continued example of military power

• N. Korean leader, Kim Jong-un, and President Trump threatening each other with nuclear weapons

• shows how the threat of military power can be used to bring about negotiations. 

Israel response to October 7th - show of military power

• Israel’s military response to Oct 7^th 2023 attacks met with little resistance in Middle East.

• Iran and Syria’s limited response reveals those nations are wary of Israels military superiority, including  the audacious Pager attack 2024 

USA and Venezuela 2025 example of military power

• Trump September 2025 strikes against fishing boat off the coast of Venezuela killing 11 people – cause = drug smuggling  

definition of economic power

• often measured in GDP, or GDP per capita

• but it may include factors such as trade balances, levels of debt, stability of economic growth, influence over trade rules and contributions to international programmes and organisations

• including NGOs, international aid, and research and development. 

Countries with the highest GDP per capita 2024

1. Luxembourg  

2. Singapore  

3. Ireland  

4. Norway  

5. Qatar  

6. UAE 

7. Switzerland  

8. US  

9. Denmark  

10. Netherlands  

US Aid programmes as an example of hard power

• US aid programmes provide an important 'carrot' encouraging support for the US in strategically important nation-states such as Egypt, Israel and Afghanistan. 

IMF/ WB loans example of hard power

 IMF/World Bank loans are conditional upon recipient N-S adopting free-market SAPs demonstrating economic hard power influence. 

How much has Beijing pledged to African development in 2018 and why

• $60 billion

• to have significant strategic influence across the region

• further strengthened Sino-African relations

EU economic hard power and why

• As the world’s 2nd biggest economy, 22% (2018)

• the EU wields enormous economic hard power with significant negotiating power on the WTO.

• It has also enabled it to negotiate the TTIP on equal terms with the USA. 

Economic sanctions as an example of hard power and examples of them

• Can coerce a nation-state.

• Extensive UN sanctions led to Iran negotiating a nuclear agreement in 2015.

• Since 90% of N. Korea's exports go to China, Chinese sanctions have been significant in persuading N. Korea to discuss denuclearisation. 

Definition of structural power

•  Capacity to influence IGOs. 

• According to the political scientist Susan Strange, structural power refers to the way in which powerful nation-states can determine ‘how things shall be done.’ 

Global acceptance of liberal economic principles as a form of structural power

• the Washington Consensus has enabled the USA to strongly influence the development of the global economy. 

USA structural power in the WB and IMF

USA having the biggest vote share on the World Bank and the IMF 

US military structural power

US’ leadership role in NATO has further increased its global influence as the world’s most influential military superpower 

China structural power AIIB

• In 2015, China established the Asian Infrastructure Bank (AIIB) to enhance its economic and political impact on the developing world. 

EU structural power

• EU also wields significant structural influence as the world’s most advanced regional organisation.

• Other regional orgs such as ASEAN and the African Union have tried to emulate its liberal values. 

Population power within hard power

A large population can provide potential for large military reserve and industrial workforce and market for leverage in trade deals 

limits to population power within hard

• if a state has a large population, many of whom live below the poverty level, it may be preoccupied with the internal social and economic problems this creates. 

• Equally, if a large % of the population is ageing or low fertile levels its population size can be a weakness.

• Russia has very poor fertility levels. 

Natural resource power contributing to hard power

• resource-rich N-Ss can possess significant bargaining power and harder to sanction due to other states’ reliance on their resources.

• Such states may be able to act more independently, without needing to rely as heavily on other states.  

limits to natural resource power contributing to hard power

• being resource-rich is a hindrance to some, particularly those in Sub-Saharan Africa

• described as the ‘resource curse’. 

• Powerful states might try to exploit them in a form neo-colonial dependence

Why realists prioritise hard power

• according to realism, all NSs are power-maximises, and so the surest way of attaining your objectives is to forcefully compel the operation or obedience of other NSs.

Limits of Hard power seen with the military power of the US

• The United States had overwhelming military superiority in Vietnam (1964-1975) and Iraq (2003-).

• However, it did not achieve its political objectives because it failed to win the support of the population.  

limits of hard power seen with Nato withdrawing from Afghanistan

• 2021

• The chaotic withdrawal of NATO forces in Afghanistan and return of the Taliban within hours after 20 years intervention, reveals the limits of military power. 

Russia and Ukraine examples of the limits of Hard power

• Russia was not deterred nor defeated so far despite economic sanctions and the supply of weapons to Ukraine. 

How the limits of hard power can be seen through terrorism

• The defeat of Islamist terrorism will not be achieved solely through hard military power.

• The killing of terrorists can create so-called martyrs, which can encourage greater radicalisation.

• Extremism can therefore be conclusively defeated only if the extremist ideas behind it are successfully challenged. 

Soft power definition

• N-S pursuing it national interest through the attractiveness of its culture and political system

• focuses on non-military and non-economic ways in which a state can persuade other states to emulate its world view. 

Positives of soft power compared to hard power

• With the internet and the spread of globalisation, the opportunity for states to advance their cultural and political values is well-established.

• It is a cheaper, less risky and potentially more effective way to achieve political objectives. 

Joseph Nye quotes on soft power

• the most important thing in global relations is “whose story wins”

• soft power is exercised through “attraction rather than coercion'.

How US’ soft power helped end the cold war

• The US’s cultural appeal therefore played a significant role in the ending of the Cold War

• since totalitarianism could not compete with the materialistic/consumer appeal of free-market capitalism.  

P. J. O’Rourke quotes on why communism failed

“because nobody wanted to wear Bulgarian shoes”

“In the end we beat them with Levi 501 jeans” - collapse of soviet union

What is Vaccine diplomacy and how is it an example of soft power

• the West has generally vaccinated its own populations first, countries like China, Russia and India have been focusing on sharing vaccine stocks with poorer countries to improve their soft power.

Different types of soft power

• Cultural power

• diplomatic power

• Research and development power

what is cultural power

• this represents a state’s global cultural outreach

• for example through television, film, food, fashion, celebrities and brand names.

• This is a more controversial and complex characteristic, which is harder to measure.  

• cultural appeal can provide the N-S with important soft-power influence in international relations.  

US example of cultural power

• Globalisation has, for example, traditionally been seen as a way in which the US has extended its influence through the appeal of its political values and culture

• often referred to as Americanisation or, more negatively,  ‘Coca-Colonisation’ / McWorld. 

differing views on cultural power

• Some argue that the world is becoming increasingly homogenised

• while others argue that the world has become a ‘melting pot’, with many different cultures competing for global influence

Diplomatic power definition

• This includes elements of structural power

• the reach of its foreign policy, and the global impression a state makes, together with its ability to utilise its power of influence.  

How should a state exert its diplomatic power

• For a state to exert diplomatic strength it should be prepared to provide global leadership on issues such as conflict resolution, the environment, the global economy, poverty and development. 

What does research and development power refer to

• R&D refers to innovation in developing products and services

• some N-Ss develop a reputation as being at the forefront of developments in certain technologies.

why R&D power is important - and examples of NSs leading in R&D

• It becomes a status symbol and provides a strategic advantage. 

• UK is a world leader in medical research

• the US in tech and biotech

• China in electric vehicles. 

why liberals agree with soft power

soft power seeks to achieve influence more through persuasion and dialogue than through the maximisation of power. 

Obama on soft power in his Inaugural speech 2009

Obama stated that American ideals of 'the rule of law and the rights of man. . . still light the world’. 

example of how the internet can suddenly undermine a nation-state’s soft power

images on the internet of the horrific human rights violations carried out at the US prison at Abu Ghraib following the Iraq War (2003) s

UK soft power

Royal weddings, tours and anniversaries are a major reason why the UK achieves so highly in terms of soft power. 

• 500+ heads of state and foreign dignitaries attend queen liz funeral

How China is trying to expand is global soft power reach

China has opened more than 500 Confucius Institutes across the world in order to spread an appreciation of Chinese language and culture.  

Olympics and its relation to soft power

• The opening ceremony of the Olympics (Beijing, 2008/ London, 2012/Rio de Janeiro, 2016) provides a highly effective way for the host nation to expand its soft power influence.  

• At the Winter Olympics in 2018, North Korea's cheerleaders presented a much more positive image of North Korea

Limits to soft power seen in Syria

 

• Despite Western condemnation of his regime, President Assad was able to survive in Syria for around a decade as a result of Russian and Iranian military support, despite the rise of rebel forces in Syria  

Limits to soft power China

Attempts by Western governments to encourage human rights in China have not been successful since they have not been backed up by hard power. 

Limits to soft power cultural backlash

• trying to export a set of values can clash with religious observation

• particularly western liberalism clashing with conservative traditional communities seen in the Middle East and Southern Asia

• can be viewed as culturally insensitive  

Who came up with the idea of Smart power and what does it mean

Nye coined the term “smart power” the combination of hard and soft power methods to achieve its aims  

Example where we can see smart power in the Obama administration

Obama's Middle East Approach (2009 Cairo Speech)

• Focused on cooperation and respect for Islamic culture.

• Tried to improve US–Middle East relations after the Bush administration.

• Moved away from Bush's hard-line "War on Terror" rhetoric and the idea of an "axis of evil."

• Acknowledged past Western tensions with the Arab world, showing cultural understanding and soft power.

• However, Obama still supported using hard power when necessary.

• In the Cairo Speech, he stated the US would act against extremist threats to national security.