EoY12 Politics SPEV

John Locke (Classical Liberal)

'Where there is no law, there is no freedom.' Optimistic view of human nature; society consists of self-seeking individuals. Advocates for a mechanistic view of the state as a servant to the people and for the social contract.

Mary Wollstonecraft (Classical Liberal)

'Virtue can only flourish amongst equals.' Argues for the rational capacity of all humans and that women should receive formal equality under law to enhance a free market economy.

John Stuart Mill (Classical Liberal)

Key concept = harm principle. Advocated for negative liberties and a limited state; opposed democracy when it undermined pluralism.

Laissez-faire capitalism

An economic system with no state involvement within the economy, promoted by John Stuart Mill.

John Rawls (Modern Liberal)

'A just society is one where the worst off are well off enough to get by.' Introduced the 'veil of ignorance' concept for societal design.

Betty Friedan (Modern Liberal)

Adapted JSM's theory of higher/lower pleasures in her campaign for civil rights; emphasized that women are as rational as men.

Thomas Hobbes (Traditional Conservative)

'A restless desire for power leads to conflict.' Advocated for an absolute government, viewing human nature as inherently violent.

Absolute government (Hobbes)

A government formed by the consent of the people, with individuals sacrificing many freedoms for safety.

Edmund Burke (Traditional Conservative)

Argued for tradition and gradual reform to maintain social order; viewed society as an organic entity.

Michael Oakeshott (One Nation Conservative)

'To be a conservative is to prefer the tried over the untried.' Known for pragmatic political thinking.

Ayn Rand (New Right)

'The small state is the strong state.' Advocated for rational self-interest and laissez-faire capitalism, opposing welfare/wealth redistribution.

Robert Nozick (New Right)

'Tax, for the most part, is theft.' Emphasized self-ownership and minimal state intervention.

Contemporary Conservative Example: Thatcherism

Policies include mass privatization, deregulation, and laissez-faire economics.

Thatcher's Poll Tax 1989/1990

Flat rate tax regardless of income, which was hugely unpopular and led to Thatcher's downfall.

Karl Marx (Revolutionary Socialist)

'From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.' Critique of capitalism and the need for a proletariat revolution.

Rosa Luxemburg (Revolutionary Socialist)

'Freedom is how free your opponent is.' Advocated for fraternity and saw revolution as spontaneous.

Beatrice Webb (Evolutionary Socialist)

'Matters may be resolved sensibly by rational, educated and civic-minded officials.' Supporter of gradual change and the welfare state.

Anthony Crosland (Social Democrat)

'What one generation sees as a luxury, the next generation sees as a necessity.' Advocated for greater equality of opportunity and outcome.

Anthony Giddens (Third Way)

'Welfare system should be restricted to give people a hand-up, not hand-out.' Critiques traditional socialism.

New Labour example: Blair's 1998 New Deal

Required job training/education for 18–24 year-olds after 6 months of unemployment.

Brexit Referendum (2016)

33 million UK citizens voted; 51.89% Leave; 72% turnout (higher than general elections).

Scottish Independence Referendum (2014)

84% turnout; 75% of 16–17 year-olds voted.

Labour Party membership (Feb 2025)

309,000 members.

Conservative Party membership (Nov 2024)

131,680 members, down from 2.3 million in the 1950s and 400,000 in the 1990s.

Reform UK membership (Nov 2025)

Over 240,000 members; 267,751 as of November 2025.

Green Party (Nov 2025)

Over 150,000 members as of November 2025 (third largest party).

Voting among 18–24s (1992-2015)

Fell by more than 50% between 1992 and 2015.

Recall of MPs Act 2015

Has been used 6 times; 4 petitions successfully removed an MP.

Electoral system: First Past the Post (FPTP)

Westminster General Elections use FPTP leading to single-party governments, often with a 'winner's bonus'.

FPTP Issues (2024)

Labour got 63% of seats with only 33% of the vote; Reform secured 14% of votes but only 1% of seats.

Parliament Acts (1911, 1949)

Allow Commons to push legislation past the Lords; traditionally used by Blair.

Electoral Systems in Use: AMS

Used in Scotland, Wales, and Greater London Authority, promoting reduced tactical voting.

Electoral System: STV (Northern Ireland)

Reinforces power-sharing; allows no wasted votes but can be confusing.

Electoral System: SV

Previously used for single mayoral candidate elections.

Referendum Results (1975)

67% Remain in UK staying in the EU, 64% turnout.

1997 Referendum Results

74% Yes for the establishment of the Scottish Parliament, 60% turnout.

1998 Good Friday Agreement approval

71% Yes, with 81% turnout.

AV referendum (2011) result

32% Yes, 67% No, 42% turnout.

Brexit referendum result (2016)

48% Remain, 52% Leave, 72.2% turnout.

Electoral Commission's role

Checks wording of referendum questions and monitors campaigns in the UK.

Voting behavior: Age

YouGov described age as the 'biggest dividing line' in British politics.

Ipsos MORI (2017) findings

62% of 18–24 year-olds voted Labour; 69% of 65+ voted Conservative.

Gender voting trends (1997)

Historically women favored Conservatives; changed under Blair.

Regional voting behavior

North is most likely to vote Labour; Conservatives broke Labour's 'Red Wall' in 2019.

Class dealignment (1970s onwards)

People no longer identify with a particular social class.

BAME voting behavior (2019)

64% of BAME voters voted Labour, while 20% voted Conservative.

Education's impact on voting (2017)

47% of voters with degrees voted Labour/LibDem; 53% of voters with no qualifications voted Conservative.

Media — Print influence

High engagement reflected in voting preferences; The Sun and Daily Mail had varying effects.

Media — Broadcast trust decline

BBC trust dropped from 81% in 2003 to 47% in 2020.

Media — Social Media influence

26% of adults said social media influenced their vote; 50% of 18-24 year-olds.

Campaigns do matter: 1992 case

Major's soapbox campaign vs Kinnock's overconfident rally led to unexpected victory.

Policies and Manifestos: 1997 election

New Labour's pledges led to landslide victory against Conservative corruption.

Referendums and sovereignty

Results are advisory; Parliament can legislate against public will.

SC's role in independence

Supreme Court denied the second Scottish Independence Referendum in 2022.

Sources of the Constitution: SCCREW mnemonic

Statute law, Common law, Conventions, Royal prerogative, External agreements, Works of authority.

Magna Carta (1215) significance

Guaranteed basic rights including no imprisonment without trial.

Bill of Rights (1689) significance

Limited powers of the monarch; empowered Parliament.

Acts of Union (1707) significance

Created Great Britain while maintaining separate legal systems.

Parliament Act of 1911 significance

Removed Lords' veto power, allowing Commons greater authority.

Freedom of Information Act (2000) significance

Ensured public access to information held by public authorities.

Fixed Term Parliament Act (2011) significance

Established elections every 5 years; repealed in 2022.

Recall of MPs Act (2015) significance

Allowed constituents to remove MPs through petitions.

Constitutional Reform Act (2005) significance

Created the UK Supreme Court and separated powers.

Delegated legislation significance

Allows Parliament to transfer powers to subordinate bodies.

Individual Ministerial Responsibility (IMR)

Ministers accountable for actions and conduct of their departments.

Collective Ministerial Responsibility (CMR)

Ministers must present a united front and support all government decisions.

Select Committees

Scrutinize government work and investigate issues.

Parliamentary Scandals (2009 MP Expenses)

Led to resignations and jail time for various MPs.

House of Lords Overview

Currently has 222 peers; representation remains limited compared to the UK population.

Comparative powers of Commons and Lords

Commons has significant authority due to Parliament Acts.

PMQ's structure

Questioning sessions with Prime Minister, often theatrical in nature.

Votes of No Confidence: outcome (1979)**

James Callaghan lost, leading to a general election.

Current political leading figures

Kemi Badenoch pledged to remove 'red tape' and support market capitalism.

BAME representation in Parliament (2024)

Only 14% of MPs are BAME; still below the 18% UK population statistic.

Legislative processes: Government Bills vs Private Members' Bills (PMBs)

Government bills dominate over PMBs, which are less likely to succeed.

Rwanda Bill 2024 significance

Went through parliamentary ping-pong indicating Lords' scrutiny.

Ascendant influence of think tanks

Right-wing think tanks support neoliberal policies and influence party strategies.

Campaign strategies success examples

Labour’s 2017 campaign boosted by Corbyn’s rallies.

Judicial independence principles

Judges must maintain neutrality and autonomy from legislative and executive powers.

Evidence of judicial neutrality being maintained

Judicial roles governed by strict rules to prevent political manipulation.

Evidence of judicial neutrality being undermined

Political pressure affecting judicial decisions and perceptions.

Ministerial appointments power

PM has significant power to appoint and dismiss ministers, shaping policy direction.

Kemi Badenoch

Current pro free market economics leader; pledged to remove 'red tape'.

Telecommunications Act 1984

Privatised British Telecom.

Housing Act 1980

'Right to Buy' — over 2 million homes sold by 1997.

Financial Services Act 1986

Allowed foreign firms to trade on London Stock Exchange.

Gas Act 1986 & Electricity Act 1989

Privatised British Gas and electricity.

Miners' strike 1984

The government's non-reactive approach led to their victory.

Falklands War reaction

Boosted Thatcher's popularity leading to her 1983 landslide victory.

Unemployment levels (1982)

Passed 3 million; economic policies led to high inflation (1980).

Labour's 1998 National Minimum Wage Act

Set the minimum wage to provide fair pay.

Working Tax Credit

Subsidised low wages to support working individuals.

2008 Welfare Reform Act

Required sick/disabled claimants to prepare for work.

Keir Starmer's proposed reforms

Banning zero-hour contracts, raising minimum wage, sick pay for all, expanding free childcare, free school meals, ending no-fault evictions.

2024: Great British Energy

Publicly owned clean power company.

2018: Conservative government voter ID trial

Only 28 reported fraud cases out of 45 million votes; raised access issues.

Online voting research (Survation)

Two thirds of 2010 non-voters would have been more likely to vote with an online option.

Compulsory voting

In force in 15 democracies including Belgium and Australia; 70% of British public agree voting is a duty (YouGov, 2023).

1832 Great Reform Act

Broadened property qualification and reduced rotten boroughs.

1867 Representation of the People Act

Extended vote to working-class men.