Psychology: Core Concepts Eighth Edition (8th/8e) Chapter 4 - Learning and Human Nature

learning

A lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results from experience.

instinct theory

The now-outmoded view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate factors.

habituation

Learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus.

mere exposure effect

A learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed.

behavioral learning

Forms of learning, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses.

classical conditioning

A form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.

operant conditioning

A form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences - that is, by the stimuli that follow the response.

cognitive perspective

Another of the main psychological viewpoints distinguished by an emphasis on mental processes, such as learning, memory, perception, and thinking, as forms of information processing.

reflex

A simple, unlearned response triggered by stimuli - such as the knee-jerk reflex set off by tapping the tendon just below your kneecap.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.

unconditioned response (UCR)

The response elicit by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.

acquisition

The initial learning stage in classical conditioning, during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

neutral stimulus (NS)

Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response.

extinction (in classical conditioning)

The weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus.

extinction (in operant conditioning)

A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay.

stimulus generalization

The extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma.

counterconditioning

Using classical conditioning to replace an unwanted association with a preferred association by pairing the fear object (the CS) with a positive stimulus.

conditioned taste aversion

A classically conditioned avoidance of certain foods or tastes.

evaluative conditioning

A variant of classical conditioning.

law of effect

The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned or "stamped" into the organism.

reinforcer

A condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response.

positive reinforcement

A stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of that response happening again.

negative reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior.

operant chamber

A boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforcers and punishers contingent on an animal's behavior; often called a "Skinner box".

continuous reinforcement

A type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced.

shaping

An operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.

intermittent reinforcement

A type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced; also called partial reinforcement.

schedule of reinforcement

A program specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements.

ratio schedule

A program by which reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses.

interval schedule

A program by which reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement.

fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

A program by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses.

variable ratio (VR) schedule

A reinforcement program by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial.

fixed interval (FI) schedule

A program by which reinforcement is contingent upon a certain, fixed time period.

variable interval (VI) schedule

A program by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trial to trial.

primary reinforcer

A reinforcer, such as food or sex, that has an innate basis because of its biological value to an organism.

conditioned reinforcer or secondary reinforcer

A stimulus, such as money or tokens, that acquires its reinforcing power by a learned association with the unconditioned stimulus.

instinctive drift

The tendency of an organism's innate responses to interfere with learned behavior.

Premack principle

The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

punishment

An aversive consequence which, occurring after a response, diminishes the strength of that response.

positive punishment

The application of an aversive stimulus after a response.

negative punishment

The removal of an attractive stimulus after a response.

insight learning

A form of cognitive learning, originally described by the Gestalt psychologists, in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions.

cognitive map

In Tolman's work, it was a mental representation of a maze of other physical space. Psychologists often used the term more broadly to include an understanding of connections among concepts. Thus, it can represent either a physical or a mental "space."

observational learning

A form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others' behavior and the consequences of their behavior.

correlational study

A form of research in which the relationship between variables is studied, but without the experimental manipulation of an independent variable. They cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships.

long-term potentiation

A biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells that is believed to be the neural basis of learning.

visual cortex

The visual processing areas of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes.

parietal cortex

Cortical areas lying toward the back and top of the brain; involved in touch sensation and in perceiving spatial relationships (the relationships of objects in space). Also known as parietal lobes.

cerebellum

The "little brain" attached to the brain stem responsible for coordinated movements.

limbic system

The middle layer of the brain, involved in emotion and memory. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and other structures.

frontal cortex

Cortical regions at the front of the brain that are especially involved in movement and in thinking. Also known as frontal lobes.

dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with the brain's reward circuits.

neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger that relays neural messages across the synapse. Many are also hormones.

empirical investigation or empirical research

An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data.