Giant AP Psych Review

Ecological Systems Theory

views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment [Uri Bronfenbrenner]

Microsystem

the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment

Mesosystem

connections between microsystems [your coach and parent talking, for instance]

Exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development [a parent's work environment]

Macrosystem

consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources

Chronosystem

in the bioecological model, historical changes or life stage changes that influence the other systems

Attachment

an emotional bond between the infant and the caregiver

Secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. Cries upon separation and seeks comfort upon return of the caregiver

Avoidant attachment

infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return [insecure]

Anxious attachment

demonstrated by babies who seem constantly afraid of potential separation from the caregiver; they cling to caregivers in strange settings and display intense distress upon separation [insecure]

Disorganized attachment

a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's unpredictable reactions to the caregiver's departure and return [insecure]

Contact comfort

Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.

parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

adolescent egocentrism

self-absorption that is characteristic of teenagers as they search for identity: unique, special, center of attention

personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Trust v. Mistrust

Refers to a stage of social development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. [Erikson's 1st stage]

Autonomy v. Shame

Erikson's second stage in psychosocial development, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others

Initiative v. Guilt

a psychosocial stage of development in which preschoolers learn to be self-starters and carry out plans, or they feel down about efforts to be independent [Erikson's 3rd stage]

Industry v. Inferiority

a psychosocial stage of development in which children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior [Erikson's 4th stage]

Identity v. Role confusion

a psychosocial stage of development: adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction [Erikson's 5th stage]

Intimacy v. Isolation

a psychosocial stage of development: young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness [Erikson's 6th stage]

Generativity v. Stagnation

a psychosocial stage of development: in middle age, adults must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose [Erikson's 7th stage]

Integrity v. despair

a psychosocial stage of development: when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) [Erikson's 8th stage]

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home.

Identity diffusion

an apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment to realizing one's identity

Identity foreclosure

the status of adolescents who prematurely commit to an identity without adequately exploring alternatives: low exploration, high commitment; following others' expectations/suggestions

Identity moratorium

a period of time in the development of identity in which a person delays making a decision about important issues but actively explores various alternatives

Identity achievement

the status of adolescents who commit to a particular identity following a period of exploration during which they consider various alternatives

Possible selves

representations of what we could become, what we would like to become, and what we are afraid of becoming that is characteristic of IDENTITY MORATORIUM

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Genetic mutations

changes in the genetic material of cells that passes from one generation to another that may cause a wide range of genetic disorders and birth defects

Maternal illness

infections contracted by the expectant mother during pregnancy that may have an effect on the developing fetus

Hormonal imbalances

irregularities in levels of estrogen, progesterone, and hCG that can cause a disruption of normal growth and development of the fetus. This could result in miscarriage, preterm birth, or birth defects.

Environmental influences

The detrimental effects of radiation, smoke, or toxins (and more) on the developing fetus in utero.

Grasping reflex

an infant's clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand

Rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple or bottle

Sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

Moro reflex

Reflex in which a newborn flails the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

Stepping reflex

a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking

Gross motor coordination

Activities or skills that use large muscles to move the trunk or limbs and control posture to maintain balance. Examples include waving an arm, walking, hopping, and running.

Fine motor coordination

Activities or skills that require coordination of small muscles to control small, precise movements, particularly in the hands and face. Examples include handwriting, drawing, cutting, and manipulating small objects.

Visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing DEPTH PERCEPTION in infants and young animals

Sensitive period

A limited phase in an individual's or an animal's development when learning of particular behaviors can take place.

Critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development [More rigid than a sensitive period]

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Growth spurt

The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Estrogen

A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males: influences menstrual cycles and female sex characteristics

Progesterone

A hormone that helps prepare the uterus for pregnancy

Menarche

onset of menstruation

Spermarche

first occurrence of ejaculation

Menopause

gradual ending of menstruation

Overall physical decline in later adulthood

Markers include a reduction in mobility and flexibility, slower reaction time, a reduction in visual sensory acuity, and a reduction in auditory sensory acuity

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. Sometimes the new situation "fits," sometimes it does not.

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic [conservation and theory of mind tasks remain difficult]

Pretend play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Animism

a preoperational (and beyond) trait that bestows real-life traits on inanimate objects. (e.g. teddy bears become students in a make-believe game of school)

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Reversibility

principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition

Formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Abstract thinking

In-depth thinking about ideas and concepts, such as justice or love.

Hypothetical thinking

Thinking that is based on what is possible, and not just what is real; sometimes referred to as "if-then" thinking. [a feature of formal operational thinking]

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

Zone of proximal development

the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone [Vygotsky]

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

the smallest units of meaning within a language

Semantics

the study of meaning in language

Grammar

in a language, a SYSTEM OF RULES that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Syntax

The arrangement [order] of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

Cooing stage

the first stage in productive language development characterized by the producing of vowel noises, "oooo," "eeeeee." This occurs at about 2 months.

Babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds--often consonant-vowel combinations

One-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

Overgeneralization (of language rules)

applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed)

Sex

the biological [chromosomal] distinction between females and males

Gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

Gender identity

one's internal sense of being male or female

Transgender

Identification with a gender that does not match one's biological sex

Androgynous

having both male and female characteristics

Gender typing

the process of developing (learning/internalizing) the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.