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Observational Learning

Learning by observing events and their consequences (without directly experiencing those consequences yourself)

Social Observational Learning

Learning from observing a model's behavior AND its positive or negative consequences; notation: O[MB → S+/-]

Asocial Observational Learning

Learning from observing events and their consequences in the absence of a model; notation: O[E → S+/-]

Vicarious Reinforcement

When an observer witnesses a model being reinforced, increasing the likelihood that the observer will perform the same behavior

Vicarious Punishment

When an observer witnesses a model being punished, decreasing the likelihood that the observer will perform the same behavior

Herbart & Harsh (1944)

Classic study demonstrating social observational learning in cats; observer cats solved puzzles faster after watching a model cat solve them

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

Children watched an adult model interact aggressively with a Bobo Doll; children were more aggressive when the model was reinforced and less aggressive when the model was punished

Hopper et al. (2008)

Example of asocial observational learning; demonstrated learning by observing events (not a model) and their consequences

Imitation

Copying the behavior of a model exactly (p.298)

Two-Action Test

A method to assess true imitation; create a task with two different actions that produce the same outcome; if observers use the technique they observed, true imitation has occurred

Whiten et al. (1996)

Study using the two-action test with chimpanzees and children; demonstrated true imitation by showing subjects used the specific technique (poke vs. twist) they had observed

Over-Imitation

The tendency to imitate obviously irrelevant acts; potential benefits include ensuring success, ability to alter learned behavior, and evolutionary survivability

Emulation

Reproducing an observed outcome WITHOUT replicating the specific actions the model used to achieve it; differs from imitation in that the process is not copied, only the end result

Emotional Contagion

An inborn tendency to react emotionally to sights or sounds of emotion in other members of one's species; reactions typically replicate the observed response; considered matching without true imitation

Observational Conditioning

When an individual learns an emotional response after observing similar emotional responses in others; a form of matching without true imitation

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire the same way during performance of an action AND during observation of that action; provide a neural link between seeing and doing (supports true imitation)

Mirror Neurons – location in monkeys

Found in the premotor cortex and inferior parietal lobe of macaque monkeys

Mirror Neurons – location in humans

Distributed across a broader network including frontal and parietal regions; demonstrated via finger-movement study (observation only, imitation, and instructed action conditions)

Imitative Deficits in ASD

Individuals with ASD do not reliably copy the actions of others; ability to replicate meaningless/nonsense actions is especially impaired; however, emulation performance is not significantly different from neurotypical individuals

ASD & Echolalia

Despite motor imitation deficits, individuals with ASD often show echolalia (verbal copying), raising questions about domain-specificity of imitation deficits

Behavioral Skills Training (BST)

An applied procedure that uses four components to teach skills: Instructions, Modeling, Rehearsal, and Feedback

BST – Instructions

Describe the expected behavior; use appropriate complexity; teacher should be credible; ensure learner attends

BST – Modeling

Demonstrate the correct behavior; model should be reinforced; model should be a peer or high-status person; occurs in proper context; may need to be repeated

BST – Rehearsal

Learner practices after receiving instructions and/or watching the model; program for success; deliver reinforcement immediately; repeat opportunities

BST – Feedback

Praise for correct performance; further instruction after incorrect performance; should be immediate, descriptive, and include some praise; corrective feedback phrased positively; correct one aspect at a time

In Situ Assessment

Assessment of skills in the natural environment when the learner is unaware they are being assessed

In Situ Training

If a learner fails an in situ assessment, a trainer enters and conducts BST in the natural environment

Variables Affecting Observational Learning – Task Difficulty

Inverse relationship between task difficulty and learning via observation; however, watching a model perform a difficult task improves likelihood of success compared to no model

Variables Affecting Observational Learning – Model Skill

Skilled models (expert models, EM) produce better observer learning than learning models (LM) or no model (NM)

Variables Affecting Observational Learning – Model Characteristics

Model should resemble the learner OR have high status to maximize observational learning

Variables Affecting Observational Learning – Observer Characteristics

Humans appear most prepared to learn via observation; observer's learning history and developmental age both affect how much they benefit

Generalization

When similar stimuli predict similar outcomes; the transfer of past learning to new situations

Types of Generalization

Vicarious generalization (across people), response maintenance (across time), response generalization (across behaviors), stimulus generalization (across situations)

Stimulus Generalization

The transfer of a learned response to novel stimuli that are similar to the original training stimulus

Generalization Gradient

A graph showing that responding is strongest to the trained stimulus and decreases as stimuli become increasingly dissimilar; demonstrated by Guttman & Kalish (1956)

Guttman & Kalish (1956)

Trained pigeons to peck a key illuminated at 550 nm (green); tested with various wavelengths; responding was highest at 550 nm and decreased as wavelength differed – demonstrated the generalization gradient

Sensory Preconditioning

Prior presentation of two stimuli together (as a compound) results in later learning about one stimulus generalizing to the other; e.g., tone+light paired → light→airpuff→blink → tone→blink (compound group only)

Hippocampus & Generalization

The hippocampal region is critical for sensory preconditioning; rabbits with hippocampal lesions in the compound exposure group showed no more transfer than control (separate exposure) animals

Altered Generalization in ASD

Anatomical and functional differences in prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, temporal lobes, and limbic regions; characterized by hyperselective learning (attending to narrow, specific features rather than generalizing broadly)

Hyperselective Learning

Tendency (seen in ASD) to focus on a narrow subset of stimulus features (e.g., only size, or only color, or only shape) rather than multiple features; limits generalization

Promoting Generalization

Strategies: (1) Reinforce generalization directly; (2) Use a variety of relevant stimuli during training; (3) Teach a range of functionally equivalent responses

Overgeneralization

When a learned behavior occurs in the presence of stimuli that are too different from the intended training stimulus; e.g., a dog trained to fetch newspapers starts stealing neighbors' papers

Discrimination

Tendency for behavior to occur in the presence of certain stimuli but NOT in their absence; results from differential reinforcement across different stimulus conditions

Three-Term Contingency

The "A-B-Cs" of behavior: Antecedent : Behavior → Consequence; the antecedent sets the occasion for behavior, which produces a consequence

SD (Discriminative Stimulus)

An antecedent stimulus that signals that a response WILL be reinforced; the behavior is more likely to occur in its presence

SΔ (S-delta)

An antecedent stimulus that signals that a response will NOT be reinforced (extinction); the behavior is less likely to occur in its presence

Discrimination Training

Procedure in which responses in the presence of SD are reinforced and responses in the presence of SΔ are placed on extinction; gradually sharpens the discrimination

Porter & Neuringer (1984)

Discrimination training study with pigeons; trained to discriminate between Bach (SD → food) and Stravinsky (SΔ → EXT)

Watanabe, Sakamoto, & Wakita (1995)

Discrimination training with pigeons; SD = Monet paintings → food; SΔ = Picasso paintings → EXT; pigeons also pecked to Cezanne & Renoir (generalization) but not Braque & Delacroix; also generalized Bach-like to Buxtehude/Vivaldi/Scarlatti

Concept Formation

Demonstrating conceptual behavior by generalizing WITHIN a conceptual class while discriminating BETWEEN conceptual classes; a concept is any class whose members share multiple defining features

Allan (1990)

Study showing pigeons tracked the position of human figures across images by adjusting their pecking location; evidence of concept-like behavior in non-human animals

Stimulus Control

When behavior reliably occurs in the presence of specific antecedent stimuli due to a history of differential reinforcement; includes real-world applications like relapse in substance use disorders

Tobacco/Nicotine Relapse & Stimulus Control

Environmental "drug-associated stimuli" act as SDs for drug use behavior; avoiding situations associated with past smoking/vaping or reducing those stimuli's control can aid cessation

Functional Assessment of Behavior

A process of determining the antecedents and consequences functionally related to a problem behavior; answers why, when, where, and with whom the behavior occurs

Social Positive Reinforcement (FBA function)

Problem behavior is maintained by positive reinforcement mediated by another person (e.g., attention, access to activities or tangibles)

Social Negative Reinforcement (FBA function)

Problem behavior is maintained by negative reinforcement mediated by another person (e.g., escape from demands or aversive tasks)

Automatic Positive Reinforcement (FBA function)

Problem behavior produces a positively reinforcing sensory consequence automatically, without requiring another person (e.g., self-stimulatory behavior)

Automatic Negative Reinforcement (FBA function)

Problem behavior automatically reduces or eliminates an aversive stimulus without requiring another person (e.g., self-injury that reduces pain)

Determining Antecedents

Ask: When/where does the behavior occur? Who is present? What events or actions precede it? Used to identify the SD or establishing operations

Determining Consequences

Ask: What happens after? What does the individual get or avoid? What do others do? Used to identify the reinforcer maintaining the behavior

Functional Analysis (FA)

An experimental procedure that systematically manipulates antecedents and consequences to directly test the function of behavior; the gold-standard method of FBA

FA – Attention Condition

Problem behavior is tested under conditions where it produces social attention; elevated behavior suggests social positive reinforcement (attention) function

FA – Demand Condition

Problem behavior is tested under conditions where it produces escape from tasks/demands; elevated behavior suggests escape/avoidance (social negative reinforcement) function

FA – Alone Condition

Problem behavior is observed when the individual is alone with no demands or attention; elevated behavior suggests automatic reinforcement function

FA – Tangibles Condition

Problem behavior is tested under conditions where it produces access to preferred items/activities; elevated behavior suggests tangible (social positive reinforcement) function

FA – Play Condition (Control)

The control condition in a functional analysis; the individual has access to preferred items and attention with no demands; low behavior rates are expected; used as a comparison baseline

Iwata et al. (1994)

Classic functional analysis study with 9 individuals with developmental delays who engaged in SIB; demonstrated that different individuals' SIB was maintained by different functions (attention, escape, automatic reinforcement) using the FA methodology

Cycle of Addiction (Koob, 2009)

A model describing addiction as a repeating cycle of: Preoccupation/Anticipation → Binge/Intoxication → Withdrawal/Negative Affect → back to Preoccupation; relevant to understanding automatic negative reinforcement as a maintaining function