ch2 A and P

matter

anything that has mass and takes up space

can be seen/smelled/felt

states of matter

solid- definite shape and volume

liquid- changeable shape definite volume

gas- changeable shape and volume

forms of energy

chemical- stored in bonds of chemical substances

electrical- results from movement of charged particles

mechanical- directly involved in moving matter

radiant/electromagnetic- travels in waves

4 elements that make up 96 % of the body

Carbon

Oxygen

Nitrogen

Hydrogen

C6 H12 O6

glucose

3 basics types of mixtures

solutions

colloids

suspensions

solution

solute particles are very tiny

don’t settle out or scatter light

colloid

solute particles are larger than in a solution and scatter light- do not settle out

suspension

solute particles are large settle out and may scatter light

solvent

substance present in greatest amount

solute

substance dissolved in solvent

smaller amounts

avogadros #

6.02 × 10²³

shell 1

holds maximum of 2 electrons

shell 2

holds maximum of 8 electrons

shell 3

holds maximum of 18 electrons

covalent bonds

share electrons

Electron sharing produces molecules

ionic bonds

atoms that have gained or lost electrons and have become charged

commonly form with atoms that have 1 or 2
valence shells and atoms that have 7 valence shells
▪ Na, C, and K with Cl, F, and I

High heat capacity

absorbs and releases large amounts of
heat before changing temperature
▪ As a component of blood, water redistributes heat
among body tissues

High heat of vaporization

changing from a liquid to a gas
requires large amounts of heat
▪ Perspiration evaporates cooling off the body removing
large amounts of heat

Polar solvent properties

dissolves (dissociate) ionic
substances (salts), forms hydration layers around large
charged molecules (colloids such as blood and CSF), and
serves as the body’s major transport medium (blood
plasma, urine, mucus) --- “the universal solvent”

Reactivity

is an important part of hydrolysis or decomposition and dehydration synthesis reactions

Cushioning

resilient cushion around certain body
organs
▪ Cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain

Inorganic Compounds- salts

Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH–
▪ Are electrolytes; they conduct electrical currents
▪ Ex.:
▪ calcium carbonate (CaCO3) – bones, teeth
▪ potassium chloride (KCl) – nerve impulses
▪ sodium chloride (NaCl) – nerve impulses

Inorganic Compounds: Acids and Bases

Are electrolytes (ionize/dissociate in water)

Acids

release H+ and are therefore proton donors

Bases

release OH– and are proton acceptors

Acidic solutions

have higher H+ concentration,
(lower hydroxyl concentration) and therefore a lower pH, sour taste

Alkaline solutions

have lower H+ concentration,
(high hydroxyl concentration) and therefore a higher pH, bitter taste, feel slippery

Neutral solutions

have equal H+ and OH–
concentrations (H+ and OH– come together)

Acidic ph

pH 0–6.99
▪ Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
▪ Acetic acid (HC2H3O2)
▪ Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Basic: pH

7.01–14
▪ Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
▪ Magnesium hydroxide (MgOH)
▪ Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
▪ Ammonia (NH3)

Strong acids

dissociate completely and irreversibly

Weak acids

do not dissociate completely

Undissociated acids do not affect pH

Strong base

dissociate quickly
▪ Hydroxide

Weak base

ionize incompletely and reversibly
(accepts few protons)
▪ Sodium bicarbonate

dehydration synthesis

monomers are joined by removing a hydroxyl group from one monomer and removing a hydrogen atom from another monomer at the site of formation

organic compounds

carbs

lipids

protein

nucleic acids

carbohydrates

Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharide

plant based

quick energy

contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

monosaccahrides

simple sugars

structural units

single chain/ring of 3-7 C

1:2:1 ratio CH2O'

isomers

disaccharides

double sugars

formed by dehydration synthesis of 2 simple sugars

polysaccharides

polymers of simple sugars

largely insoluble, lack sweetness

starch, glycogen

lipids

contains C,H,O

less oxygen

insoluble in water

neuytral fats- tricgylcerides

3 fatty acids

hydrocarbon chain

1 glycerol- (modified simple sugar)

organic acid group - carboxyl (—COOH)

unsaturated fats

(monounsaturated or polyunsaturated)

Double covalent bonds between C atoms

Short, kinked chains, liquid at room temp.

Plant oils:  olive & peanut oil and corn, soybean, & safflower oils

Saturated fats

Single covalent bonds between C atoms

Long, straight chains, solid at room temp.

Animal fats: butterfat and meat fat

Neutral fats

Phospholipids

§chief component of cell membranes

Steroids

lat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings, fat soluble

cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones

proteins

full set of the body’s proteins

10-30% of cell mass

Some serve as the basic structural material of body

Others help out with cellular functions

Contain C, H, O, and N

Many contain S and P

proteins- amino acids

Building blocks of protein

2 functional groups

Basic group - amino group NH₂

Acid group  - carboxyl group COOH

Can act as base (3) P acceptors

acid (2) P donors

neutral 15

20 common types

Identical, except for R group (makes them unique)

Structural Levels of Proteins

primary

secondary

terirtary

quaternary

Primary

amino acid linear sequence

Backbone of protein molecule

Secondary

alpha helices (coil)

H bonds NH, CO

Different part of same chain

beta (pleated) sheets

May link with other chains or self through H bonds

Tertiary

Superimposed folding of secondary structures

Alpha helix or beta pleated regions of the polypedtide chain fold upon one another

Producing compact ball-like, globular, molecule

Maintained by covalent and hydrogen bonds

Hydrophilic a.a.

on the protein surface

hydrophobic a.a

closer to the protein’s center

fibrous proteins

exhibit only secondary structure, some quatenary
▪ Extended and strand-like proteins
▪ Insoluble in water
▪ Very stable (Mechanical support and tensile strength)

KERATIN, ELASTIN, COLLAGEN

globular proteins

Compact, spherical proteins
▪ Tertiary and quaternary structures
▪ Water soluble
▪ Chemically active molecules
▪ Crucial players in biological processes known as the functional
proteins

atoms

more or less identical building blocks for each element

elements

unique substances that can not be broken down by ordinary chemical means

atomic symbol

1 or 2 letter chemical shorthand for each element

physical properties

those detected with our senses
(color & texture) or measurement (boiling point or
freezing point)

Chemical properties

pertain to the way atoms
interact with one another (bonding behavior)

proton

+1

1 amu in nucleus

neutron

0

1 amu

in nucleus

electrons

-1

0 amu

orbiting the nucleus

planetary model

electrons move around the nucleus in a fixed circular orbit

orbital model

regions around the nucleus in which electrons are most likely to be found

atomic number

equal to the number of protons, number of electrons equal to protons

mass number

equal to mass of neutrons and protons

subtracting the # of protons from the mass # gives you the # of neutrons

Atomic weight

average of the mass numbers of all isotopes

Isotope

atoms with same number of
protons but a different number of
neutrons
▪ Ex. 7 isotopes of H
9 isotopes of He
11 isotopes of Li
22 isotopes of Na
15 isotopes of C

Radioisotopes

atoms that undergo
spontaneous decay called
radioactivity
▪ Alpha, beta, gamma particles
ejected from nucleus

Molecule

two or more atoms held together by
chemical bonds

Compound

two or more different kinds of
atoms chemically bonded together

Mixtures

two or more components physically intermixed (not chemically bonded)

Solutions

homogeneous mixtures of components that may be solids (like
salt), liquids (like ethanol) and gases (like carbon dioxide, air). All solutes
that can be dissolved in a liquid solvent.

Colloids

(emulsions) – heterogeneous mixtures
whose solutes do not settle out (sol-gel
transformations)
▪ Cytoplasm, cerebral spinal fluid

Suspensions

heterogeneous mixtures with large
visible solutes that tend to settle out
▪ Sand and Water (non-biological example)
▪ Blood plasma

Inert elements

have their outermost energy level
fully occupied by electrons

Reactive
elements

do not have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons

anion

have gained one or more electrons

acceptor

negative charge

cation

have lost one or more electrons

donor

positive charge

valence shell

outermost energy level containing chemically active electrons

octet rule

except for the first shell which is full with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to
have eight electrons in their valence shell

nonpolar molecules

electrons shared equally between atoms

polar molecules

unequal sharing of electrons

electronegative

Atoms with six or seven valence shell electrons

electropositive

Atoms with one or two valence shell electrons

hydrogen bonds

Too weak to bind atoms together
▪ Common in dipoles such as water
▪ Responsible for surface tension in water
▪ Important as intra-molecular bonds, giving the
molecule a three-dimensional shape

combination reactions

Synthesis reactions which aways involve bond formation

anabolic reactions

decomposition reactions

molecules broken down into smaller molecules

catabolic reactions

exchange reactions

bonds are made and broken

oxidation reaction

Reactants losing electrons are
▪ electron donors and
▪ are oxidized

reduction reaction

electron acceptors and
▪ become reduced
▪ Are decomposition reactions

Exergonic reactions

reactions that release energy
▪ Catabolic reactions
▪ Oxidative reactions

Endergonic reactions

reactions whose products
contain more potential energy than did its reactants
▪ Anabolic reactions

factors influencing chemical reactions rates

Temperature – chemical reactions proceed quicker at higher temperatures because of increase kinetic energy

Particle size – the smaller the particle the faster the chemical reaction because smaller particles move faster and tend to collide more forcefully

Concentration – higher reacting particle concentrations produce faster reactions because chance of success is higher for collision

catalysts

increase the rate of the reaction without being chemically changed

cushioning

resilient cushion around certain body organs