Psychology Weeks 1-4

What is reliability?

The consistency of a measurement or test.

What is validity?

Whether a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

What is test-retest reliability?

Measuring the same thing multiple times to see if results are consistent.

What is split-half reliability?

Checking whether different parts of the same test produce similar results.

What is predictive validity?

Whether a test predicts future outcomes.

Can a test be reliable but not valid?

Yes.

What is an example of test-retest reliability?

Stepping on the same scale twice and getting similar results.

What does Western psychology traditionally emphasise in intelligence?

Cognitive speed, abstract reasoning, and independent problem-solving.

What do many African conceptions of intelligence include?

Social responsibility, morality, wisdom, and cooperation.

What is fluid intelligence (Gf)?

Solving new problems and reasoning in unfamiliar situations.

What is crystallised intelligence (Gc)?

Knowledge and skills gained through learning and experience.

Which type of intelligence is solving a new logic puzzle?

Fluid intelligence.

Which type of intelligence is vocabulary knowledge?

Crystallised intelligence.

What is the original IQ formula?

IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100.

If a 10-year-old has a mental age of 12, what is their IQ?

120.

What is the average IQ score?

100.

What is the standard deviation (SD) for IQ tests?

15.

What does +1 SD mean in IQ?

15 points above average (IQ 115).

What percentile is approximately +1 SD?

84th percentile.

What IQ is +2 SD?

IQ 130.

What percentile is IQ 130?

About the 97th percentile.

What IQ is +3 SD?

IQ 145.

What percentile is approximately +3 SD?

About the 99.9th percentile.

Why do higher SDs become rarer?

Fewer people are far from the average in a normal distribution.

What determines goals in Socioemotional Selectivity Theory?

Perceived future time left.

What do people with an expansive future perspective prioritise?

Learning, exploration, and expanding social networks.

What do people with a limited future perspective prioritise?

Emotional satisfaction and meaningful relationships.

What is a simple memory trick for Socioemotional Selectivity Theory?

Long future = 'learn more'; short future = 'feel more.'

What are cohort effects?

Differences between generations caused by growing up in different historical contexts.

Are cohort effects caused by biological aging?

No.

Why are older adults often more different from each other than younger adults?

They have had more varied life experiences.

What are ageist stereotypes?

Negative stereotypes about aging and older adults.

How can ageist stereotypes affect health?

Through psychological, behavioural, and biological pathways.

Are age stereotypes always conscious?

No, they often operate unconsciously.

What does 'internalised ageism' mean?

People absorb stereotypes about aging and apply them to themselves.

What does psychodynamic theory focus heavily on?

The unconscious mind, sexuality, and childhood experiences.

What is a common criticism of Freud's theory?

It overemphasises sexuality.

Did Freud focus heavily on unconscious processes?

Yes.

What is free association?

Saying whatever comes to mind without censorship.

What is dream analysis?

Interpreting dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts.

What is interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?

The therapist explaining unconscious meanings or conflicts.

Is conflict avoidance a psychodynamic technique?

No.

Why is conflict avoidance not psychodynamic?

Psychodynamic therapy explores conflict rather than avoiding it.

What is trait theory?

The idea that stable traits predict patterns of behaviour.

What does openness predict?

Seeking novelty, creativity, and new experiences.

What is the nomothetic approach?

Looking for general laws that apply to most people.

What is the idiographic approach?

Focusing on individual uniqueness.

What is a memory trick for nomothetic vs idiographic?

Nomo = norms/general; idio = individual.

What does social cognitive theory emphasise?

Behaviour is shaped by both learning and cognition.

What role does observation play in social cognitive theory?

People learn behaviours by observing others.

According to social cognitive theory, why do thoughts matter?

Interpretations of situations affect behaviour.

How is social cognitive theory different from strict behaviourism?

It includes thinking/cognition as well as learning.

What does the humanistic perspective emphasise?

Personal growth, self-concept, and psychological needs.

What is self-actualisation?

Achieving one's fullest potential.

Which psychologists are associated with humanistic psychology?

Maslow and Rogers.

Which perspective focuses on reinforcement and punishment?

Behaviourism.

Which perspective focuses on unconscious conflict?

Psychodynamic.

How many symptoms are required for Major Depressive Disorder?

5 or more symptoms.

Over what timeframe must MDD symptoms occur?

The same 2-week period.

What are two core symptoms of MDD?

Depressed mood and loss of interest/pleasure.

Why must clinicians rule out medical causes before diagnosing depression?

Medical conditions can mimic psychological symptoms.

What are examples of medical causes that can mimic depression?

Thyroid disorders, anemia, sleep disorders, or substance use.

What does RCT stand for?

Randomized Controlled Trial.

Why are RCTs considered the gold standard?

They compare treatments using random assignment and control groups.

Do RCTs eliminate all bias?

No.

What is the purpose of random assignment?

To reduce confounding variables and improve causal conclusions.

What is a placebo group?

A control group receiving an inactive treatment.

Why is wording like 'eliminates all bias' usually incorrect in science?

Science rarely removes all possible bias completely.

What does S in SORCK stand for?

Stimulus.

What does O in SORCK stand for?

Organism.

What does R in SORCK stand for?

Response.

What does C in SORCK stand for?

Consequence.

What does K in SORCK stand for?

Contingency.

What is the 'organism' component in SORCK?

Internal factors like thoughts, emotions, or biology.

What is the 'response' component in SORCK?

The behaviour performed.

What is the 'consequence' component in SORCK?

What happens after the behaviour.

What does 'contingency' mean in SORCK?

The relationship between behaviour and consequences.

Which perspective focuses on reinforcement and conditioning?

Behavioural.

Which perspective focuses on growth and self-actualisation?

Humanistic.

Which perspective focuses on thoughts and interpretations?

Cognitive.

Which perspective combines learning and cognition?

Social cognitive.

Which perspective focuses on stable personality dimensions?

Trait theory.

What is positive reinforcement?

: Adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour.

Example of positive reinforcement?

A dog receives a treat for sitting and begins sitting more often.

In positive reinforcement, does behaviour increase or decrease?

Increase.

What is negative reinforcement?

taking away something bad to increase a behavior

Example of Negative Reinforcement

-student comes in late, take away their ability to go to the treasure box for a treat

-student changes behavior and comes in early to regain that

Positive punishment?

adding an unpleasant or aversive consequence immediately after the behavior occurs

Negative punishment?

an operant conditioning technique used to decrease an unwanted behavior by removing a desirable stimulus after that behavior occurs.

Example of Negative Punishment

A teenager comes home past curfew, so their parents take away their car keys for a week.

Example of a positive punishment

spanking, parking ticket

What does exposure therapy mainly target?

Avoidance of feared stimuli.

Why does avoidance maintain anxiety?

The person never learns the feared situation may actually be safe.

What does exposure therapy teach people?

Anxiety decreases naturally over time.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning through associations between stimuli.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning through reinforcement and punishment.

Classical conditioning mainly involves what type of responses?

Automatic/reflexive responses.

Operant conditioning mainly involves what type of behaviours?

Voluntary behaviours.

What is the key difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves associations between stimuli, while operant conditioning involves consequences shaping behaviour.

Which conditioning type uses reinforcement and punishment?

Operant conditioning.