FINAL- Fill in blank

Absolute Threshold

the minimum amount of stimulation required to trigger a reaction or produce a sensation. _________ is measured across several trials. It is the lowest or weakest level of stimulation (e.g., the slightest, most indistinct sound) that can be detected on 50% of trials. Although the name suggests a fixed level at which stimuli effectively elicit sensations, the _________ fluctuates according to alterations in receptors and environmental conditions.

Accommodation of lenses

the process by which the focus of the eye is changed to allow near or distant objects to form sharp images on the retina. _________ is achieved mainly by contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles, which exert tension on the zonules attached to the lens, but also involves adjustments in the convergence of the eyes and the size of the pupils.

Action Potential

the change in electric potential that propagates along the axon of a neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse or the contraction of a muscle. It is marked by a rapid, transient depolarization of the cell’s plasma membrane, from a resting potential of about –70 mV (inside negative) to about +30 mV (inside positive), and back again, after a slight hyperpolarization, to the resting potential. takes just a few milliseconds.

Activation synthesis theory

a hypothesis that explains dreams as a product of cortical interpretation of random neural activity rising from the brainstem (specifically the pons). It has been superseded by the AIM model.

Adaptions

adjustment of a sense organ to the intensity or quality of stimulation, resulting in a temporary change in sensory or perceptual experience, as in visual _____ when the pupil of the eye adjusts to dim or bright light.

or

reduced responsiveness in a sensory receptor or sensory system caused by prolonged or repeated stimulation.

addiction

a state of psychological and/or physical dependence on the use of drugs or other substances, such as alcohol, or on activities or behaviors. The term is often used as an equivalent term for substance use disorder or substance dependence and can be applied to non-substance-related behavioral addictions, such as sex, exercise, and gambling

Afterimages

the image that remains after a stimulus ends or is removed.

• ganglion cells activated create this.

agonists

a drug or other chemical agent that binds to a particular receptor and produces a physiological effect, typically one similar to that of the body’s own neurotransmitter at that receptor.

Antagonist

a drug or other chemical agent that inhibits the action of another substance.

All or nothing principle

the principle that the amplitude of the action potential in a neuron is independent of the magnitude of the stimulus. Thus, all stimuli above the neuron’s threshold trigger action potentials of identical magnitude (although they may vary in frequency); stimuli below this threshold may produce local graded potentials but no propagated impulses

• action potential will either fully occur or not start.

Amygdala

an almond-shaped structure in the temporal lobe that is a component of the limbic system and considered part of the basal ganglia. It comprises two main groups of nuclei—the corticomedial group and the basolateral group—and through widespread connections with other brain areas has numerous viscerosensory and autonomic functions as well as an important role in memory, emotion, perception of threat, and fear learning.

association areas

any of various areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved principally in sensory or motor representations but may be involved in integrative functions

Autonomic nervous system

the portion of the nervous system innervating smooth muscle and glands, including the circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive organs. It is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. _______ responses typically involve changes in involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, salivation, digestion, perspiration, pupil size, hormone secretion, bladder contraction, and engorgement of the penis and clitoris. The system is called _______ because it was once thought to function independently of the central nervous system.

Autopsy

procedure in which the body of a dead person is examined in an effort to determine the exact cause and time of death

Axon

the long, thin, hollow, cylindrical extension of a neuron that normally carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body

Blind spot

in vision, the area of the monocular visual field in which stimulation cannot be perceived because the image falls on the site of the optic disk in the eye.

• the area of the retina at which the axons of the retinal ganglion cells gather before leaving the retina to form the optic nerve. Because this region contains no photoreceptors, it creates a blind spot in the visual field.

Blindsight

the capacity of some individuals with damage to the striate cortex (primary visual cortex or area V1) to detect and even localize visual stimuli presented to the blind portion of the visual field. Discrimination of movement, flicker, wavelength, and orientation may also be present. However, these visual capacities are not accompanied by conscious awareness.

EEG

abbreviation for electroencephalography

a method of studying brain waves using an instrument (electroencephalograph) that amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed at various points on the scalp

• Brain waves.

PET

an imaging technique using radiolabeled tracers, such as 2-deoxyglucose labeled with fluorine-18, that emit positively charged particles (positrons) as they are metabolized. Used to evaluate cerebral metabolism and blood flow as well as the binding and transport of neurotransmitter systems in the brain, ______ enables documentation of functional changes that occur during the performance of mental activities. It is also used to detect damage or disease (e.g., cancer) in other organs of the body.

• a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

CAT

a radiographic technique for quickly producing detailed, three-dimensional images of the brain or other soft tissues. An X-ray beam is passed through the tissue from many different locations, and the different patterns of radiation absorption are analyzed and synthesized by a computer. Because a _____ scan produces many slice-by-slice pictures of the head, chest, or abdomen, it is possible to locate abnormalities, such as lesions or tumors, without exploratory surgery.

• DOESNT SHOW ACTIVITY

MRI

a noninvasive diagnostic technique that uses the responses of hydrogen in tissue molecules to strong magnetic impulses to form a three-dimensional picture of body organs and tissues.

fMRI

a form of magnetic resonance imaging used to localize areas of cognitive activation, based on the correlation between brain activity and blood property changes linked to local changes in blood flow to the brain. During periods of cognitive activation, blood flow is always increased to a greater extent than oxygen extraction. In consequence, the proportion of oxygenated hemoglobin in the red blood cells transiently increases in an active region, leading to a local increase in the signal detected by_______

• functions of the brain, not just imaging of body organs.

Brain Lateralization

the processes whereby some functions, such as manual control (handedness) or speech production, are controlled or influenced more by one cerebral hemisphere than the other.

Alpha Waves

in scalp electroencephalography, a type of low-amplitude brain wave (frequency 8–12 Hz) that typically occurs when the eyes are closed or unfocused and no deliberate mental tasks are taking place; it is associated with a wakeful but relaxed state.

Beta Waves

in electroencephalography, the type of brain wave (frequency 13–30 Hz) associated with alert wakefulness and intense mental activity

Delta Waves

The lowest frequency brain wave recorded in electroencephalography. ___ waves are large, regular-shaped waves that have a frequency of 1 to 3 Hz. They are associated with deep sleep.

Theta Waves

n electroencephalography, a type of regular brain wave with a frequency of 4 to 7 Hz. _____ occur during REM sleep in nonhuman animals, Stage 2 NREM sleep in humans, and the drowsy state prior to sleep onset in newborn infants, adolescents, and adults.

• associated with deep relaxation, memory consolidation, and emotional processing.

Brainstem

the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and is involved in the autonomic control of visceral activity, such as salivation, respiration, heartbeat, digestion, and other so called vegetative functions.

Brocas Area

a region of the posterior portion of the inferior frontal convolution of a cerebral hemisphere that is associated with the production of speech. It is located on the left hemisphere of right-handed and of most left-handed individuals.

Brocas Aphasia

one of eight classically identified aphasias, characterized by nonfluent conversational speech and slow, halting speech production.

Central Nervous System

the entire complex of neurons, axons, and supporting tissue that constitute the brain and spinal cord. The ______ is primarily involved in mental activities and in coordinating and integrating incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages

Cerebellum

a portion of the hindbrain dorsal to the rest of the brainstem, to which it is connected by the cerebellar peduncles. The _____ modulates muscular contractions to produce smooth, accurately timed ballistic movements; it helps maintain equilibrium by predicting body positions ahead of actual body movements, and it is required for some kinds of motor conditioning

Cerebral Cortex

the layer of gray matter that covers the outside of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain and is associated with higher cognitive functions, such as language, learning, perception, and planning.

Circadian Rhythm

any periodic variation in physiological or behavioral activity that repeats at approximately 24-hour intervals, such as the sleep–wake cycle

Confederate

in an experimental situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment.

Consciousness

an organism’s awareness of something either internal or external to itself.

Contralaterality

situated on or affecting the opposite side of the body.

• Right side of brain controls left side of body, Left side of brain controls right side of body.

corpus callosum

a large tract of nerve fibers running across the longitudinal fissure of the brain and connecting the cerebral hemispheres: It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain.

Frontal lobe

one of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain, lying in front of the central sulcus. It is concerned with motor and higher order executive functions.

Prefrontal lobe

the furthest forward area of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain, which is concerned with such functions as memory and learning, emotion, and social behavior.

Parietal Lobe

one of the four main subdivisions of each cerebral hemisphere. It occupies the upper central area of each hemisphere, behind the frontal lobe, ahead of the occipital lobe, and above the temporal lobe. Parts of the _____ lobe participate in somatosensory activities, such as the discrimination of size, shape, and texture of objects; visual activities, such as visually guided actions; and auditory activities, such as speech perception.

Somatosensory Cortex

the region responsible for processing nociception and pain, organizing sensory stimuli intensity, and containing subregions for different types of sensory inputs

Occipital Lobe

the most posterior (rearward) subdivision of each cerebral hemisphere, roughly shaped like a pyramid and lying under the skull’s occipital bone. It contains several visual areas that receive and process visual stimuli, and it is involved in basic visual functions (e.g., visual acuity; contrast sensitivity; perception of color, form, and motion) as well as higher level ones (e.g., figure-ground segregation based on textural cues)

Temporal Lobe

one of the four main subdivisions of each cerebral hemisphere in the brain, lying immediately below the lateral sulcus on the outer surface of each hemisphere. It contains the auditory projection and auditory association areas and also areas for higher order visual processing

motor cortex

the region of the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for the control of voluntary movement.

Debrief

the process of giving participants in a completed research project a fuller explanation of the study in which they participated than was possible before or during the research.

• After experiment is completed.

deception

any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others.

• allowed in some cases for experiments.

deep sleep

the stage of the sleep cycle in which arousal thresholds are highest and consciousness is taken to be least likely. In electroencephalography, ________ is commonly defined by a predominance of slow, high-amplitude waveforms

dendrites

a branching, threadlike extension of the cell body that increases the receptive surface of a neuron.

• detect signals

Depolarization

a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface.

Depressant

having the quality of diminishing or retarding a function or activity of a body system or organ.

• Alchohol

hallucinogens

a substance capable of producing a sensory effect (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or tactile) in the absence of an actual stimulus. Because they produce alterations in perception, cognition, and mood, hallucinogens are also called psychedelic drugs or psychedelic

• THC(marijuana) or LSD

• Increases neural activity

Opioid

The effects of ____ include analgesia, drowsiness, euphoria or other mood changes, respiratory depression, and reduced gastrointestinal motility. ______ are used clinically as pain relievers, anesthetics, cough suppressants, and antidiarrheal drugs, and many are subject to abuse and dependence.

• Heroine

• Decreased neural activity

Stimulant

any of various agents that excite functional activity in an organism or in a part of an organism

• increase neural activity

• Caffeine

Dichromatism

partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Lack of the third pigment leads to confusion between certain colors.

monochromatism

. a partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Everything appears in various shades of a single color

• sees world in black and white essentially

insomnia

difficulty in initiating or maintaining a restorative sleep, which results in fatigue, the severity or persistence of which causes clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning. Such sleeplessness may be caused by a transient or chronic physical condition or psychological disturbance.

Narcolepsy

a disorder consisting of excessive daytime sleepiness accompanied by brief “attacks” of sleep during waking hours. These sleep attacks may occur at any time or during any activity, including in potentially dangerous situations such as while driving an automobile.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

a sleep disorder involving motor activity during REM sleep, which typically includes a physical enactment of dream sequences. Because the dreams that are acted out are generally unpleasant or combative, this behavior is usually disruptive and can result in violence.

Sleep apnea

the temporary cessation of breathing while asleep, which occurs when the upper airway briefly becomes blocked or when the respiratory centers in the brain fail to stimulate respiration.

Somnambulism

a sleep disorder characterized by persistent incidents of complex motor activity during slow-wave NREM sleep. These episodes typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking, although the individual may also perform more complicated tasks, such as eating, talking, or operating machinery. While in this state, the individual stares blankly, is essentially unresponsive, and can be awakened only with great difficulty; they do not remember the episode upon waking

• Sleep walking

Drug tolerance

a condition, resulting from persistent use of a drug, characterized by a markedly diminished effect with regular use of the same dose of the drug or by a need to increase the dose markedly over time to achieve the same desired effect.

drug withdrawal

a syndrome that develops after cessation of prolonged, heavy consumption of a substance. Symptoms vary by substance but generally include physiological, behavioral, and cognitive manifestations, such as nausea and vomiting, insomnia, mood alterations, and anxiety.

dual processing

a decision-making theory stating that judgment and reasoning involve two separate processes: intuitive decision making and rational decision making.

• The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

effects of sleep deprivation

Studies show that the loss of one night’s sleep has a substantial effect on physical or mental functioning; participants score significantly lower on tests of judgment and simple reaction time and show impairments in daytime alertness and memory. Sleep loss also may be detrimental to the immune and endocrine systems.

Endocrine System

describing or relating to a type of chemical signaling in which a chemical messenger is released by a cell and is carried (e.g., via the bloodstream) to a distant target cell on which it exerts its effect.

• a network of glands in the body that produce and secrete hormones to regulate various bodily functions such as metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood.

eugenics

social and political philosophy, based loosely on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Francis Galton’s research on hereditary genius, that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding. Positive eugenics is directed toward promoting reproduction by individuals with ostensibly superior traits, whereas negative eugenics is directed toward preventing reproduction by individuals with traits that are considered to be undesirable.

Evolutionary perspective

views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges. It differs from sociobiology mainly in its emphasis on the effects of natural selection on information processing and the structure of the human mind.

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

a brief decrease in the difference in electrical charge across the membrane of a neuron that is caused by the transmission of a signal from a neighboring neuron across the synapse (specialized junction) separating them. _________ increase the probability that the postsynaptic neuron will initiate an action potential and hence fire a nerve impulse.

inhibitory postsynaptic potential

a brief increase in the difference in electrical charge across the membrane of a neuron that is caused by the transmission of a signal from a neighboring neuron across the synapse (specialized junction) separating them. ______ decrease the probability that the postsynaptic neuron will initiate an action potential and hence fire a nerve impulse.

fight or flight

a pattern of physiological changes elicited by activity of the sympathetic nervous system in response to threatening or otherwise stressful situations that leads to mobilization of energy for physical activity (e.g., attacking or avoiding the offending stimulus), either directly or by inhibiting physiological activity that does not contribute to energy mobilization. Specific sympathetic responses involved in the response include increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and sweat gland activity; elevated blood pressure; decreased digestive activity; pupil dilation; and a routing of blood flow to skeletal muscles

Forebrain

the part of the brain that develops from the anterior section of the neural tube in the embryo, containing the cerebrum and the diencephalon. The former comprises the cerebral hemispheres with their various regions (e.g., basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus); the latter comprises the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Fovea

the central portion of the retina in which retinal cone cells are most concentrated and an image is focused most clearly

Ganglion Cells

the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation. Retinal ganglion cells receive input from retinal bipolar cells and amacrine cells. The axons of __________ cells form the optic nerve.

• cause after images

gate control theory of pain

the hypothesis that the subjective experience of pain is modulated by large nerve fibers in the spinal cord that act as gates, such that pain is not the product of a simple transmission of stimulation from the skin or some internal organ to the brain. Rather, sensations from noxious stimulation impinging on pain receptors have to pass through these spinal gates to the brain in order to emerge as pain perceptions. The status of the gates, however, is subject to a variety of influences (e.g., drugs, injury, emotions, possibly even instructions coming from the brain itself), which can operate to shut them, thus inhibiting pain transmission, or cause them to be fully open, thus facilitating transmission.

glands

an organ that secretes a substance for use by or discharge from the body.

glial cells

nonneuronal tissue in the nervous system that provides structural, nutritional, and other kinds of support to neurons.

hindbrain

the posterior of three bulges that appear in the embryonic brain as it develops from the neural tube. The bulge eventually becomes the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum.

Hippocampus

a seahorse-shaped part of the forebrain, in the basal medial region of the temporal lobe, that is important for declarative memory and learning.

Homeostasis

the regulation by an organism of all aspects of its internal environment, including body temperature, salt–water balance (see osmoregulation), acid–base balance (see hydrogen-ion concentration), and blood sugar level.

• maintenance of a stable balance, evenness, or symmetry

Adrenaline

it is secreted in large amounts when an individual is stimulated by fear, anxiety, or a similar stress-related reaction

• increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, relaxes bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, and produces varying effects on blood pressure as it acts both as a vasodilator and vasoconstrictor.

Leptin

a protein, manufactured and secreted by fat cells, that may communicate to the brain the amount of body fat stored and may help to regulate food intake

• makes you feel full

ghrelin

a peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach that binds to growth hormone receptors in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone.

melatonin

an amine hormone, produced mainly by the pineal gland as a metabolic product of the neurotransmitter serotonin, that helps to regulate seasonal changes in physiology and may also influence puberty. It is implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep–wake cycle.

oxytocin

a peptide produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland into the blood, where it acts as a hormone, or into the central nervous system, where it acts as a neurotransmitter and binds to _______ receptors to influence behavior and physiology.

It has earned a reputation as a facilitator of social affiliation, and the tend-and-befriend response in particular, and it has been shown to influence sexual pleasure, reproductive functions, and parental behavior (especially maternal behavior).

gustation

the sense of taste. Taste is at the threshold between the external (chemical) and internal (biochemical) worlds; it serves an organism’s nutritional needs and protects it from poisons

hyperpolarization

an increase in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes more negative in relation to the outer surface. It occurs during the final portion of an action potential or in response to inhibitory neural messages

hypothalamus

part of the diencephalon of the brain, lying ventral to the thalamus, that contains nuclei with primary control of the autonomic (involuntary) functions of the body. It also helps integrate autonomic activity into appropriate responses to internal and external stimuli. Additionally, it is involved in appetite, thirst, sleep, and sexuality

• feeding, flight or fight, fornication

interneurons

any neuron that is neither sensory nor motor but connects other neurons within the central nervous system.

ions

an atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge by gaining or losing one or more electrons

just noticeable difference/webbers law

the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be consistently and accurately detected on 50% of trials.

K Complex

a brief, high-amplitude spike-and-rebound waveform recorded in the scalp electroencephalograph during sleep onset. _ ___________ and sleep spindles occur normally during Stage 2 NREM sleep (see sleep stages). It is postulated that they may suppress sleep disruptions and coordinate memory consolidation.

• considered a hallmark of stage 2 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep.

Kinesthesia

the sense that provides information through receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints, enabling humans and other animals to control and coordinate their movements, including walking, talking, facial expressions, gestures, and posture

Left Hemisphere

the ___ half of the cerebrum, the part of the brain concerned with sensation and perception, motor control, and higher level cognitive processes. The two cerebral hemispheres differ somewhat in function; for example, in most people, the ___ hemisphere has greater responsibility for speech.

• language

Right hemisphere

the _____ half of the cerebrum, the part of the brain concerned with sensation and perception, motor control, and higher level cognitive processes. The two cerebral hemispheres differ somewhat in function; for example, in most people, the ___ hemisphere has greater responsibility for spatial attention

Lesioning

any disruption of or damage to the normal structure or function of an organ or part of an organ due to injury, disease, or a surgical procedure. A ____ may be a wound, ulcer, tumor, cataract, or any other pathological change in tissue.

• destruction to a specific part of the brain

limbic system

a loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network that is involved in autonomic and visceral processes and mechanisms of emotion, memory, and learning. It includes portions of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and certain cortical and subcortical structures, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and septal area.

long term potentiation

enhancement of synaptic transmission (see synapse), which can last for weeks, caused by repeated brief stimulations of one nerve cell that trigger stimulation of a succeeding cell. The capacity for potentiation has been best shown in hippocampal tissue. LTP is studied as a model of the neural changes that underlie memory formation, and it may be a mechanism involved in some kinds of learning.

mean

The numerical average of a set of scores, computed as the sum of all scores divided by the number of scores

median

the midpoint in a distribution, that is, the score or value that divides it into two equal-sized halves. The ____ is a measure of central tendency that is particularly useful when analyzing data that have skewness (i.e., lopsidedness), because it is more resistant to the influence of extreme values.