Chapter 41 Practice Exam: Animal Body Plan & Principles of Regulation

What are the four levels of organization?

Cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems

What body type is composed of different cell types?

Vertebrates

How many cell types do mammals have?

200

What are tissues?

Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function

What is the name of the three fundamental embryonic tissues?

Germ layers

What are the names of germ layers?

Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm

How many primary tissues do adult vertebrates have?

Four

What are the names of the primary vertebrate tissues?

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve tissue.

What are organs?

Combinations of different tissues that form a structural and functional unit

What are organ systems?

Groups of organs that cooperate to perform the major activities of the body

What covers every surface of the vertebrate body?

Epithelial membrane or epithelium

What can come from any of the three germ layers?

Epithelial tissue, epithelium, or epithelial membrane

What do some epithelia change into?

Glands

How are cells of epithelia bound together?

Tightly

What does the binding style of epithelia cells provide?

A protective barrier

Epithelia possess what kind of remarkable regenerative power to do what?

Replace cells throughout a vertebrate’s life

What attaches epithelial tissue to underlying connective tissues?

Fibrous membrane

What are the general classes of epithelia?

Simple and stratified

How many layers thick is simple epithelia?

One

How many layers thick is stratified epithelia?

Two or more

What are the names of the subdivisions of each epithelial class?

Squamous cells, cuboidal cells, and columnar cells

Describe the shape of squamous cells.

Flat

Describe the shape of cuboidal cells.

About as wide as tall

Describe columnar cells.

Taller than they are wide

What do simple squamous epithelium line?

Lungs and blood capillaries

The delicate nature of simple squamous epithelium permits what?

Diffusion

What does simple cuboidal epithelium line?

Kidney tubules and several glands

What does simple columnar epithelium line?

Airways or respiratory tract and most of the gastrointestinal tract

What cell type do simple columnar epithelium contain?

Goblet

What do goblet cells secrete?

Mucus

What kind of epithelium is epidermis?

Stratified squamous epithelium

What do many vertebrate have in the outer layers of their epidermis?

Keratin

What are glands made from?

Epithelial tissue

What do glands produce?

Metabolic products?

What connects exocrine glands to epithelium?

A duct

Sweat, sebaceous, and salivary glands are what type of glands?

Exocrine

What do endocrine glands do?

Secrete hormones that enter blood

Thyroid, pituitary, liver, pancreas, and adrenal glands are what type of glands?

Endocrine

From what do connective tissues arise?

Mesoderm

How many classes are connective tissues divided into?

Two

What are the names of the classes of connective tissue?

Connective tissue proper and special connective tissue

What things comprise the connective tissue class?

Loose or dense connective tissue

What things comprise the special connective tissue class?

Cartilage, bone, and blood

What do all connective tissues have?

Abundant extracellular material called the matrix

What is matrix?

Protein fibers plus ground substance

What do fibroblasts produce and secrete?

Extracellular matrix

What is loose connective tissue?

Cells scattered within a matrix that contains a large amount of ground substance

Loose connective tissue is strengthened by what?

Protein fibers

What are the names of three protein fibers that strengthen loose connective tissue?

Collagen, elastin, and reticulin

What does collagen do?

Supports tissue

What does elastin do?

Makes tissue elastic

What does reticulin do?

Helps support the network of collagen

What is another name for adipose cells?

Fat cells

Adipose cells can be found in what?

Loose connective tissue

What is formed when adipose cells develop in large groups?

Adipose tissue

Between dense and loose connective tissue, which contains less ground substance?

Dense connective tissue

What are the names of the types of dense connective tissue?

Regular and irregular

How are collagen fibers arranged in dense regular connective tissue?

Arranged in parallel

What does dense connective tissue make up?

Tendons and ligaments

How are collagen fibers arranged in dense irregular connective tissue?

Arranged with different orientations

What does dense irregular connective tissue cover?

Kidney, muscles, nerves, and bone

What is cartilage?

Ground substance made from characteristic glycoprotein (chondroitin) and collagen fibers in long, parallel arrays

What are the characteristics of cartilage?

Firm and flexible tissue that does not stretch, great tensile strength, and found in joint surfaces and other locations

What are cartilage cells called?

Chondrocytes

Where do chondrocytes live?

In lacunae (spaces) in the ground substance

What are bone cells called?

Osteocytes

Where do osteocytes remain alive?

In a matrix hardened with calcium phosphate

Bones or osteocytes communicate through what?

Canaliculi

When thinking about blood, what is extracellular material called?

Fluid plasma

What are Erythrocytes?

Red blood cells

What are Leukocytes?

White blood cells

What are Thrombocytes?

Platelets

Muscles are the motors of what?

Vertebrate bodies

What are the names of the types of muscle?

Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac

What muscles are striated?

Skeletal ad cardiac

What muscle type is under voluntary control?

Skeletal muscle

What muscle type is under involuntary control?

Smooth and cardiac

Where is smooth muscle found?

Walls of blood vessels and visceral organs

How many nuclei do smooth muscles have?

A singular one

To what are skeletal muscles attached?

Bone

What attaches skeletal muscle to bone?

Tendons

Since skeletal muscle is attached to bones by tendons, muscle contraction causes what?

Bones to move

How many nuclei do skeletal muscle fibers (cells) have?

Multiple

Skeletal muscles contract by means of what?

Myofibrils

What do myofibrils contain?

Ordered actin and myosin filaments

Cardiac muscle is composed of what?

Smaller, interconnected cells

Do cardiac muscle cells have one or many nuclei?

One

What are intercalated disks?

Interconnections between cardiac muscle cells that appear as dark lines

What links adjacent intercalated disks?

Gap junctions

What do gap junctions between adjacent cardiac muscle cells enable?

The formation of a single functioning unit

Nerve tissue contain what cells?

Neurons and neuroglia

What do neuroglia do?

Support neurons

Most neurons consist of what three parts?

Cell body, dendrites, and an axon

What do neuronal cell bodies contain?

The nucleus

What are dendrites?

Highly branches extensions

What do dendrites do?

Conduct electrical impulses toward the cell body

What is an axon?

A single cytoplasmic extension

What do axons do?

Conduct impulses away from the cell body

Neuroglia do not do what?

Conduct electrical impulses

What do neuroglia do?

Support, nourish, and protect neurons