Biopsychology

Sympathetic nervous system

Anxiety, large pupils, fast heartbeat, enlarged airways

Parasympathetic nervous system

Relaxed, small pupils, slow heartbeat, smaller airways

Exitatory neurotransmitters

Try to fire the next neuron, have a positive charge

Inhibitiory neurotransmitters

Try to stop the next neurom from firing, have a negative charge

Nervous system

Consists of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, is the origin of all complex commands and decisions

Peripheral nervous system

Sends information to the CNS from the outside world and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body

Somatic nervous system

Transmits information from the receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS, also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act

Autonomic nervous system

Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. It is autonomic as the system operates involuntarily and has 2 main divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic

Endocrine system

One of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream, these are then carried towards target organs in the body

Gland

An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones

Hormones

Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs, they are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly, their effects are very powerful

Fight or flight response

The way an animal responds when stressed, the body becomes psychologically aroused in readiness to fight an ‘aggressor’

Adrenaline

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands, it has a strong effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system, stimulating the heard rate, contracting blood vessels and dilating air passages

Neuron

The basic building blocks of the nervous system, nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals

Sensory neurones

Carry messages from the PNS to the CNS, they have long dendrites and short axons

Relay neurones

Connect the sensory neurones to the motor and other relay neurones, they have short dendrites and short axons

Motor neurones

Connect the CNS to the effectors such as muscles and glands, they have short dendrites and long axons

Synaptic transmission

The process by which neighbouring neurones communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synaptic cleft that separates them

Neurotransmitter

Brian chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neurone to another, can be excitatory or inhibitory

What is summation?

The action potential of the post synaptic neurone is only triggered if the sum of the excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold potential

Localisation of function

The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities.

Motor area

A region of the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement.

Somatosensory area

An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information such as touch.

Visual area

A part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information.

Auditory area

Located in the temporal lobe and concerned with the analysis of speech-based information

Broca’s area

An area of the frontal lobe of the brain in the left hemisphere (in most people) responsible for speech production.

Wenicke’s area

An area of the temporal lobe (encircling the auditory cortex) in the left hemisphere (in most people) responsible for language comprehension.

Hemispheric lateralisation

The idea that the 2 halves of the brain are functionally different and that certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other

Split-brain research

Series of studies that started in the 1960s involving epileptic patients who had a surgical separation of the hemisphere of the brain

Endogenous neuroplasticity

Internal brain changes that occur through puberty or pregnancy

Experience dependent neuroplasticity

Brain changes through external reasons or as a result of demands on the brain

Synaptic pruning

While sleeping, the brain gets rid of unnecessary connecions

3 mechanisms for recovery of function of the brain

Axonal sprouting, reformation of blood vessels, neural reorganisation through the recruitment of homologous area

What is the homologous area?

The equivalent part on the other hemisphere of the brain

3 factors that affect recovery of brain after trauma

Age - negative correlation

Perseverance in neurorehabilitation - positive correlation

Education - positive correlation

What is a DFR?

Disability free recovery

Plasticity

The brains tendency to change and adapt (functionally and psychically) as a result of experience and new learning

Functional recovery

A form of plasticity, following damage through trauma. The brain can redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by damaged areas to other undamaged areas

What is post-mortem exams

The study of the brain of a person whose abnormal behaviour could be due to underlying abnormality in their brain. It is the oldest method of studying the brain

What is an electroencephalogram (EEG)

Measuring electrical activity of the brain through electrodes on the scalp which can then be graphed

What is an event-related potential? (ERP)

A patient carries out a specific task repeatedly in order to detect electrical activity associated with it. The repetitions allow inconsistent neural noise to be filtered out

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

Measuring changes in blood flow that indicate increased neural activity due to a task being executed. This is because more activation means more oxygenation. An image of the brain is produced

Evaluate post-mortem examinations

+Improve our medical understanding and can be used to generate hypotheses for other testing

-Lack of informed consent

-Causation issues (what came first, the damage or the defect?)

Evaluate EEGs

+Used in the diagnosis of epilepsy and sleep disorders

+High temporal resolution

-Poor spatial resolution – difficult to pinpoint exactly where signals are coming from

Evaluate ERPs

+Excellent temporal resolution

-Requires you eliminate any background ‘noise’ and extraneous variables which is often not easy to do.

Evaluate fMRIs

+Does not rely on radiation or any invasive procedure

+Images have high spatial resolution to allow for detailed localisation of function

-Expensive

-Relies on person staying fully still.

-Low temporal resolution (we see the activity 5 seconds after it happens)

-Can’t represent activity from individual neurons

Circadian rhythm

24 hour cycle reset by light e.g. sleep/wake cycle controlled by the SCN and melatonin secretions

Infaradian methods

Last more than 24 hours e.g. menstrual cycle and SAD

Ultradian cycle

Occur over a time period less than 24 hours e.g. cycles of sleep