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Amendments that expanded suffrage

Constitutional amendments that increased voting rights by removing restrictions based on race, sex, age, or poll taxes

Models of voting

Theories explaining why people vote the way they do, including party loyalty, candidate image, economic concerns, and issue positions

Rational choice voting

The idea that voters choose the candidate or party they believe will benefit them the most based on self-interest and costs/benefits

Retrospective voting

Voting based on how a candidate or party performed in the past, especially while in office

Prospective voting

Voting based on what voters believe a candidate or party will do in the future

Party-line voting

Voting for candidates only because they belong to a certain political party, regardless of personal qualifications

Structural barriers to voter turnout

Government systems or laws that make voting harder, such as voter ID laws, weekday elections, registration deadlines, and limited polling access

Factors that influence voter turnout

Education level, age, income, race, political interest, registration laws, competitiveness of elections, and mobilization efforts

Linkage institutions

Structures that connect citizens to the government, including political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media

Political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media

Examples of linkage institutions

Political parties

Organizations that seek to influence government by electing members to office and promoting policies

Two-party system

A political system dominated by two major parties. In the U.S., Democrats and Republicans win most elections

Positives of 3rd parties

They introduce new issues, pressure major parties to adapt, and give dissatisfied voters more options

Interest groups

Organizations that try to influence public policy without running candidates through lobbying officials, donating money, educating the public, and mobilizing members

Iron triangles

A close relationship among congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that benefit each other

Issue networks

Loose groups of experts, media, lobbyists, and officials who work on policy issues

Single issue interest groups

Groups focused on one cause, such as abortion, gun rights, or environmental protection

Open primary

Any registered voter may vote in either party’s primary

Closed primary

Only registered members of that party may vote in the party’s primary

Caucus

A local meeting where party members discuss candidates and choose delegates

Incumbent advantage

Current officeholders often win reelection because of name recognition, fundraising ability, and constituent services

Electoral college

System where electors chosen by states formally elect the president. Most states use winner-take-all

Congressional elections

House members serve 2-year terms and represent districts. Senators serve 6-year terms and represent whole states

FECA

Federal Election Campaign Act; law that increased disclosure rules and regulated campaign finance

FEC

Federal Election Commission; agency that enforces campaign finance laws

Hard money

Money donated directly to candidates or parties regulated by law

Soft money

Money given to parties for general activities, once less regulated than direct donations

Citizens united v. FEC

Supreme Court case holding corporations/unions may spend unlimited independent political money as protected speech

Conservatives

People who favor some government intervention in social issues, traditional values, a free market with no government interference economically, and a strong national defense, are most commonly associated with the Republican party

Liberals

People who support greater government involvement in the economy and society to promote equality, civil rights, and provide social services, and are most commonly associated with the Democratic party

Individualism

The belief that people should be responsible for their own success and well-being and the Government shouldn’t help us solve our problems

Equality of opportunity

The idea that everyone should have the same chance to succeed in life regardless of their background

Free enterprise

An economic system where private individuals and businesses are free to operate with minimal government interference to make a profit

Rule of law

No one is above the law; everyone is bound by the law. Fair and consistent enforcement of laws towards everyone, and limits government power

Limited government

A government that does not have complete power and is bound by restraints

Political socialization

The process through which people develop their political beliefs, values, and attitudes

Silent generation

• Historical events: Great depression and WW2

• Strong respect for authority and institutions

• Tend to be more conservative

• Valued stability and national security

• Adhere to rigid gender roles

• Opposed gay liberation, anti-conformity, and women's rights movements

• Supported American intervention into communist countries

• Vote for candidates who are tough on crime or terrorism

Baby boomers

• Post WW2, Civil rights movement, Vietnam war, Watergate

• Experienced movements for social change, leading to many civil rights and liberal causes in youth

• Some became more conservative later due to fiscal issues

• Influenced by Vietnam war and Watergate to be skeptical of government

• Overall learned to appreciate anti conformity culture a little more and were slightly more liberal than the previous generation but still leaned conservative

Generation X

• Cold war, economic recessions, rise of technology, cultural shifts

• More ethnically diverse than previous generations

• More liberal acceptance of diversity

• Independent and skeptical of political institutions

• Mixed political views

Millennials

• 9/11, war on terrorism, rise of the internet/social media

• Generally much more liberal on social issues

• Supportive of government action on economic inequality and social welfare

• Digital natives

Generation Z

• Mass shootings, climate crisis, Covid-19, social media

• Strongly socially progressive, with emphasis on equality and climate action

• Valued diversity and inclusion

• Highly influenced by online activism and social media campaigns

Polls

Surveys that measure public opinion on issues, candidates, or policies that are used to quantify what the public thinks, often used by politicians, media, and researcher

Public opinion polls

Interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire population

Tracking polls

Continuous surveys that enable a campaign or news organization to chart a candidate's daily or weekly rise and fall in support

Entrance polls

Voters are asked about which candidate they are going to vote for and why before they walk into the voting location

Exit polls

Polls are conducted as voters leave selected polling places on election day

Sample

A subset of the population selected to represent the opinions of the whole population in a poll or survey

Focus group

A small group of voters chosen by a political campaign for their demographic similarities, who are brought together to gauge how the group they represent feels

Bandwagon effect

A phenomenon in which people support a candidate or position simply because it appears popular or is likely to win

Social desirability bias

A type of response bias where people answer surveys or poll questions in a way they think will be viewed favorably by others, rather than giving their true opinion

Non-response bias

Poll samples are less accurate when a lot of people don’t respond

Fiscal policy

The government's use of taxing and spending to influence the economy that’s managed by congress

Monetary policy

The government's use of the money supply and interest rates to influence the economy that is controlled by the Federal Reserve 

Federal reserve

An independent regulatory agency that works as the central bank of the United States, tasked with responsibilities like managing the money supply, stabilizing prices, moderating interest rates, and reducing unemployment

Supply side economics

Economic theory advocated by president Reagan holding that to much income goes to taxes so to little money is available for purchasing so government should cut taxes

Keynesian economics

An economic approach first championed by economist John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s who maintained that spending by the government can stimulate economic growth much faster than a free market could on its own

Engel v. Vitale

Rules against state sponsored prayer for violating the establishment clause

1. New York public schools allowed a state-written prayer to be recited voluntarily in classrooms

2. Constitutional principle: Establishment clause

3. The court ruled that school-sponsored prayer in public schools is unconstitutional

Wisconsin v. Yoder

Rules for individuals free exercise of religion

1. Amish parents refused to send their children to public high school due to religious beliefs that school should end after 8th grade

2. Constitutional principle: Free exercise clause

3. Court ruled in favor of Amish, holding that compulsory school attendance after 8th grade violated their religious freedom

Tinker v. Des Moines

Protects student speech that is symbolic and not a threat to the learning environment

1. Students wore black arm bands to school to protest the Vietnam War; suspended by school officials

2. Constitutional principle: Free speech

3. Court ruled that students do not shed their first amendment rights when they enter school, protected symbolic speech as long as it doesn’t disrupt educational activities

Schenk v. The United States

Limits free speech if it presents a clear and present danger

1. Charles Schenk distributed anti-draft pamphlets during WW1; convicted under the Espionage Act

2. Constitutional principle: Free speech

3. Ruling and significance: Court upheld the conviction, establishing the “clear and present” danger test. Speech can be restricted if it poses a serious threat to public safety

New York Times v. US

Protects freedom of the press and sets a high bar for prior restraint

1. “Pentagon Papers” leaked, Nixon administration tried to prevent publication claiming national security risk

2. Constitutional principle: Freedom of the press

3. Court ruled in favor of the press, establishing strong protections against prior restraint and reinforcing the role of the press in holding government accountable

McDonald v. Chicago

Incorporates the 2nd amendment right to bear arms to the states

1. Chicago's handgun ban challenged as violating individual rights

2. Constitutional principle: 2nd amendment, incorporation via 14th amendment

3. The Court ruled that 2nd amendment applies to states through the 14th Amendment, strengthening individual gun rights

Gideon v. Wainwright

Incorporates the 6th amendment right of counsel to the states

1. Clarence Gideon was denied a court-appointed attorney in a felony trial in Florida

2. Constitutional principle: 6th amendment

3. Court ruled that all defendants in criminal cases have the right to an attorney, ensuring fair trials and procedural due process

Brown v. Board of education

Uses the equal protection clause to overturn the separate but equal doctrine

1. Challenged racial segregation in public schools

2. Constitutional principle: equal protection clause (14th amendment)

3. Court ruled “separate but equal” is inherently unequal, ending legal school segregation and becoming a cornerstone of the Civil Rights Movement

McCulloh v. Maryland

Rules that the US government could set up a national bank using the commerce clause

1. A national bank was placed in Maryland and Maryland didn’t want a national bank, so they started taxing it

2. Maryland said that because the bank was unconstitutional because it wasn’t listed in the enumerated powers

3. McCulloh stated that because of the necessary and proper clause the bank was constitutional

4. Supreme Court ruled in favor of McCulloh shifting power back to the federal government

US v. Lopez

Rules that the commerce clause can’t be used for any reason and has limitations

1. Lopez brought a gun to school and got arrested on state charges (guns are up to the states)

2. They tried to charge him under federal law because the punishment was heavier even though they had no jurisdiction because it was a state law

3. They then said that bringing a gun to school was a federal issue because it violated the commerce clause

4. Supreme court ruled in favor of Lopez, shifting power back to the states

Shaw v. Reno

Ruled that districts can’t be gerrymandered solely on race

1. North Carolina drew voting districts primarily on race

2. argued that redistricting with race as the sole factor was a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment

3. The state in which districts were drawn to increase minority representation

4. The Supreme Court ruled that racial gerrymandering was unconstitutional when race was the only or primary reason

Baker v. Carr

Set up the “one person one vote” rule

1. Tennessee districts hadn’t been redrawn in 60 years, and more cities had been popping up over time

2. Tennessee voters were upset because they said that rural areas were getting more representation

3. The state argued that redistricting is a political question, not a judicial one, because that was the precedent set by the Supreme Court previously, while voters argued that the districts were unfair and not representative of the state population

4. The Supreme Court ruled against its precedent and said courts can review redistricting cases, resulting in the “one person, one vote.” 

Marbury v. Madison

Grants the courts the power to declare laws and actions unconstitutional

1. William Marbury was appointed a justice of the peace, but his commission was not delivered by James Madison

2. Marbury said that, according to the law, he had a legal right to the job, while Madison said the court had no power to force delivery

3. The SC ruled the law Marbury ran with unconstitutional, establishing judicial review

1st amendment

protects freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition

2nd amendment

Protects the right to keep and bear arms

4th amendment

• Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures

• Requires warrants based on probable cause

5th amendment

Protects rights of the accused, including due process, double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and eminent domain

6th amendment

Guarantees fair trial rights; speedy and public trial, impartial jury, notice of charges, confront witnesses, and right to counsel

8th amendment

Prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment

10th amendment

Powers not given to the federal government are reserved for the states or the people

13th amendment

Abolished slavery

14th amendment

Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the US

Due process clause

Guarantees that the government cannot deny anyone of life, liberty, or property without fair procedures and legal proceedings

Equal protection clause

Requires that states must treat all people equally under the law; no individual or group can be discriminated against unfairly

15th amendment

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude

17th amendment

Senators are elected by the people, not the state legislature, which resulted in increased democracy and participation in government

19th amendment

Woman’s suffrage

20th amendment

Changed the start dates of presidential and congressional terms and coined the “Lame duck amendment.”

22nd amendment

Prevents anyone from holding the presidency too long by limiting it to two terms

23rd amendment

Gave Washington DC electoral votes in presidential elections

24th amendment

Banned poll taxes in federal elections which made voting more accessible for Black Americans and the poor

25th amendment

Clarifies presidential succession and disability

• VP becomes president if the president dies or resigns

• President can temporarily transfer power if currently unable to serve

Article 5

Explains how the Constitution can be amended

• Congress proposes an amendment with a ⅔ vote in both the House and the senate

• ¾ of the states must approve to ratify it

Articles of Confederation

The first US Constitution

Flaws:

• Weak central government

• Congress could not tax or regulate trade

• No president or federal courts

Constitution

The current set of rules for the US that establishes separation of powers, creates our federal system, and can be amended

Brutus 1

Anti federalist paper, arguing against ratifying the Constitution and warning that a large federal government would lead to tyranny, destroy state sovereignty, and eliminate individual liberties

Federalist 10

A federalist paper arguing that a strong, large republic is the best way to control the violence of factions

Federalist 51

A federalist paper arguing that the Constitution's separation of powers and checks and balances are essential to protecting liberty

Federalist 70

A federalist paper arguing for a single, strong president, emphasizing that one executive leads to decisive action, speed, and accountability

Federalist 78

A federalist paper arguing for an independent judiciary with life tenure to ensure judges act impartially

Letter from a Birmingham jail

An Essay written by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. while he was imprisoned for participating in a nonviolent protest against segregation. In response, the white clergy, who were sympathetic to the civil rights movement, said it was unwise to continue protesting until white people were more willing to help the cause but MLK said that he couldn’t wait and said that peaceful protests and civil disobedience were essential to the cause

Participatory democracy

Democracy where there is broad participation of citizens

Pluralist democracy

Political power resting with competing interest groups that advocate for their members interests to create policy

Elite democracy

Suggests that a small number of people usually those that are wealthy, well-educated, and holding high positions get to make the decisions