AICE Sociology AS Level Chapters 1,2,&3

What is Primary Data?

Information collected personally by a researcher.

What are the strengths of Primary Data?

The researcher has control over how the data is collected, the purpose, and who it's collected for.

What are the weaknesses of Primary Data?

Time-consuming and expensive to conduct.

What is Secondary Data?

Data already existing (official statistics, reports, personal letters, and diaries - at archives, libraries).

What are the strengths of Secondary Data?

Saves time, money, and effort, when investigating crime, marriage, divorce, and suicide.

What are the weaknesses of Secondary Data?

Official definitions of concepts being studied by researchers may differ from sociological definitions.

What are Official Statistics?

Government-generated secondary sources of data on areas such as crime, marriage, and employment.

What is Quantitative Data?

Data that is numerically expressed.

What are the strengths of Quantitative Data?

Allows for easy comparison of results between categories & time.

What are the weaknesses of Quantitative Data?

Collects only limited information, limits respondents to a few lines.

What is Qualitative Data?

Non-numerical data that expresses the quality of a relationship.

What are the strengths of Qualitative Data?

Subjects are allowed to talk and act freely which allows researchers to collect data and find the reason behind behaviours.

What are the weaknesses of Qualitative Data?

Data is difficult to generalise, as qualitative research is usually based on small groups.

What are Questionnaires?

Consists of a list of written questions.

What are the strengths of Questionnaires?

Highly reliable data is collected as everyone answers all questions.

What are the weaknesses of Questionnaires?

Low response rate, and this can result in the sample being unrepresentative.

What are Close-ended Questions?

Have sets of pre-coded responses.

What are Open-ended Questions?

Allow participants to respond in a freestyle manner.

What are Social Surveys?

Obtains information in a standardised form from a large group of people.

What is Content Analysis?

Research method which systematically analyses media texts and communication.

What are Experiments?

Involves changing different variables to test their effect on behaviour.

What is a Laboratory Experiment?

An experiment conducted in artificial settings where conditions are controlled by the researcher.

What is a Field Experiment?

An experiment conducted in natural settings, but the conditions of the study are controlled.

What is a Longitudinal Survey?

A form of comparative analysis which track changes of a sample participating in research over time.

What is a Cross-sectional Survey?

Involves identifying groups which share broad similarities and measuring difference in a single variable.

What is Validity?

An issue with official statistics due to selective inclusion and exclusion by governments and coroners.

What is Comparative Analysis?

Method that compares different situations to understand their similarities and differences.

What are Structured Interviews?

Interviews where a set of standard questions are asked to respondents.

What is a strength of Structured Interviews?

Consistent comparable results and a likely 100% response rate.

What is a weakness of Structured Interviews?

Lack of anonymity can lead to demand characteristics.

What are Unstructured Interviews?

Free-form interviews where respondents talk freely about a broad topic.

What is a strength of Unstructured Interviews?

Highly valid data is collected.

What is a weakness of Unstructured Interviews?

Difficult to generalize, interpret, and analyze the data.

What are Semi-Structured Interviews?

Interviews that involve both open and closed questions.

What is a strength of Semi-Structured Interviews?

Allows respondents freedom to discuss topics, leading to valid data.

What is a weakness of Semi-Structured Interviews?

Time-consuming due to large amounts of data collected.

What are Group Interviews?

Interviews where respondents discuss a topic as a group.

What is a strength of Group Interviews?

Data is collected quickly and encourages participation.

What is a weakness of Group Interviews?

Researcher must control group behavior for free speech.

What is Overt Observation?

Subjects are aware they are being studied.

What is Covert Observation?

Subjects are unaware they are being studied.

What is Non-Participant Observation?

Researcher observes behavior from a distance without participating.

What is a strength of Non-Participant Observation?

Allows study of subjects who do not want to participate.

What is a weakness of Non-Participant Observation?

Can produce invalid data due to lack of interaction.

What is Participant Observation?

Researcher participates in the behavior being studied.

What is Overt Participant Observation?

Researcher openly participates in the behavior of subjects.

What is a strength of Overt Participant Observation?

Allows in-depth questioning of participants.

What is a weakness of Overt Participant Observation?

Awareness of the researcher may lead to unnatural behavior.

What is Covert Participant Observation?

Researcher studies participants undercover.

What is a strength of Covert Participant Observation?

Participants show natural behavior, leading to high validity.

What is a weakness of Covert Participant Observation?

Ethical issues and difficulty in gaining access to groups.

What are Case Studies?

In-depth qualitative study of a particular group or person.

What is a strength of Case Studies?

Provides great detail and high validity.

What is a weakness of Case Studies?

Time-consuming and difficult to generalize results.

What is Semiology?

Analysis of language and cultural signs to uncover hidden meanings.

What are Documents?

Sources such as newspapers, reports, and personal letters.

What is a Sampling Frame?

A list of names of all people included in the survey population.

What is Random Sampling?

Technique where people are randomly selected.

What is a Pilot Study?

Conducted to assess practical and financial risks of research.

What are the three main interactionist perspectives?

Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, and symbolic interactionism.

Who developed the concept of phenomenology in sociology?

Alfred Schutz.

What does phenomenology focus on?

The negotiated and interpreted meanings of phenomena through social interaction.

What is ethnomethodology?

A theory by Harold Garfinkel that examines how individuals construct a common-sense view of the world through everyday interactions.

What are breaching experiments?

Experiments conducted by Garfinkel to observe reactions to violations of social rules.

What is symbolic interactionism?

A perspective by G. H. Mead that understands society in terms of the subjective meanings people impose on behavior.

What criticism did D. Wrong have regarding socialisation?

He criticized the Over Socialised Conception of Man, arguing that genetic predispositions also influence behavior.

What does Social Action Theory emphasize?

It emphasizes that people act and interact meaningfully with free will to create society.

What is the structuralist perspective on individual actions?

It explains individual actions in terms of the overall structure of society.

What is Giddens' Structuration theory?

It posits that structure and action are equally important in understanding the relationship between the individual and society.

What is socialisation?

The process of transferring norms, values, culture, tradition, language, and customs from one generation to another.

Who is Genie in the context of socialisation?

A feral child discovered in California who was isolated and malnourished, failing to develop socially and physically.

What is the 'I' and the 'Me' according to G. H. Mead?

'I' is the unsocialized self, while 'Me' is the social self, reflecting societal expectations.

What is the Looking Glass Self theory by C. H. Cooley?

It suggests that individuals imagine how they appear to others and adjust their behavior accordingly.

What is Goffman's concept of Dramaturgy?

It views social interactions as performances where individuals adopt roles and manage impressions.

What are the two types of social control?

Formal controls (written rules like laws) and informal controls (rewards/punishments in everyday settings).

What is primary socialisation?

The process of socialisation conducted by family and immediate peers.

What role do parents play in primary socialisation?

They are significant others who teach basic and moral values through positive and negative sanctions.

What is secondary socialisation?

Socialisation conducted by institutions like education, mass media, and religion, where emotional connections are less significant.

What does Parsons argue about the education system?

It emancipates children from primary attachments and helps them internalize societal norms and values.

What is the hidden curriculum in schools?

The implicit lessons taught in schools that promote obedience and conformity.

What is the significance of peer groups in socialisation?

They influence individuals through peer pressure and serve as a form of social control.

What is a sub-culture?

A culture within a larger culture that develops its own norms and values.

What does the term 'biological programming' refer to?

The idea that individuals are predisposed to behave in certain ways based on biological factors.

What is the criticism of sociobiology?

Attempts to limit the effects of biological programming can lead to social problems.

What did Fallon's neurological research reveal?

The brain structure of psychopathic killers was not significantly different from those who did not engage in deviant behaviors.

What role does education play in socialization according to Parsons?

Education is a secondary agent of socialization that emancipates children from primary attachments and helps them internalize societal norms and values.

What is the correspondence principle proposed by Bowles and Gintis?

It explains how the education system mirrors the world of work, emphasizing obedience to authority and the need for attendance.

What are the short-term effects of mass media on individuals?

Imitation, desensitization, and learning new content.

What long-term effects can mass media have on society?

Increased consumerism and fear due to exposure to violent content.

How do religious values influence individuals?

They provide a design for living and can affect legal systems and moral values.

What are positive and negative sanctions in the context of religion?

Positive sanctions include promises of a better afterlife, while negative sanctions involve threats of hell or exclusion from the community.

What constitutes the social construction of reality?

It involves beliefs, ideologies, and power structures that shape everyday ideas about roles, values, and norms.

What are roles in the context of social interaction?

Roles are labels with meanings that dictate expected behavior in social interactions.

How do values contribute to social order?

Values provide broad guidance for behavior and support the norms within a society.

What are norms, and how do they function in society?

Norms are specific rules dictating acceptable behavior in particular situations and are open to negotiation.

What is the significance of ideologies in society?

Ideologies explain and legitimize the social structure and culture of a group, acting as mental maps for societal development.

How does power relate to the social construction of reality?

Those with power can impose their definitions of social reality on others, influencing order and stability.

What does Giddens suggest about power in modern society?

Power is exercised subtly, such as through surveillance and technology.

How is social class stratified?

It is divided into working, middle, and upper classes based on occupation and social capital.

What characterizes lower-class identities?

Lower-class identities are often associated with blue-collar work and reinforced through socialization.