AP PSYCH U3: Development and Learning

What are the two types of developmental psychology?

chronological and thematic

What is chronological development?

refers to age-related changes that happen as a person grows older

(ex: a baby learns to walk, then talk, and then read as they grow older)

What is thematic development?

recurring patterns or themes in what a person says or creates, which reflect their underlying motives, feelings, or conflicts

(ex: a student constantly talking about stress and responsibility)

What are the types of thematic development?

- stability vs. change

- nature vs. nurture

- continuity vs. discontinuity (stages)

What are cross-sectional studies?

study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

(ex: testing 1st graders and 5th graders on reading at the same time)

What are longitudinal studies?

study that follows the same group of people over a long period of time

(ex: testing the same group of kids in 1st grade later in 5th grade)

What factors affect the development in the womb?

- environmental factors

- teratogens

- maternal illness/wellness

- hormones

What are teratogens?

foreign substances that can negatively affect the child

What happens in early childhood (birth - 2 years)?

- physical development (similar timeline)

- infant development (reflexes & depth perception)

What are examples of reflexes and depth perception?

rooting and the Visual Cliff Experiment

What happens in childhood (3 - 8 years)?

- language

- imprinting (where the young look for an adult figure)

What happens in adolescence (9 - 18 years)?

- growth spurts

- puberty (physical, hormonal, and psychological changes)

What happens in adulthood (19 - ? years)?

- most of one's life

- most growing is over

- decline in many areas (ex: vision and hearing)

What is Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

explains how children think and understand the world as they grow; cognition develops in four stages to which children actively build knowledge through experience

What is continuity?

describes the development involving gradual changes in behaviors and thought processes

(ex: height increases as a child ages)

What is discontinuity?

describes the development involving distinct shifts in behaviors and thought processes

(ex: a child suddenly understanding how to speak)

What happens in the sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years)?

- exploration of the world using their senses and actions

- object permanence

- separation anxiety

What is object permanence?

understanding that items continue to exist even when NOT sensed directly

(ex: a baby finds a toy hidden under a blanket, showing they know it still exists)

What is separation anxiety?

normal distress that a young child experiences when away from the caregiver to whom they are attached

(ex: a toddler cries when their parent leaves the room)

What happens in the preoperational stage (2 - 7 years)?

- described by characteristic errors in thinking

- animism and egocentrism

- inability to conserve

- lack of reversibility

- theory of mind

What is animism?

believing inanimate objects have feelings or intentions

(ex: a child gives their plushie a snack because its "hungry")

What is egocentrism?

misunderstanding that everyone has the same views and opinions as one

(ex: a child thinks their favorite game is everyone's favorite game too)

What is the inability to conserve?

when a child cannot understand that quantity stays the same even if its shape or appearance changes

(ex: a child believes a bigger slice of pizza is more pizza, even though both slices are the same size)

What is lack of reversibility?

when a child can't mentally reverse actions or steps in their head

(ex: a child can't imagine pouring water back into the original cup after pouring it into a new one)

What is the theory of mind?

ability to understand that others have different beliefs, wishes, emotions, and perceptions that influence their behavior

(ex: a child understands someone else can think differently than they do)

What happens in the concrete operational stage (7 - 12 years)?

- conservation

- reversibility

What is conservation?

ability to understand that the mass, volume, or number of an object of something remains the same despite superficial changes in appearance

(ex: a child knows two equal amounts of water are still equal even after pouring into different cups)

What is reversibility?

ability to undo a sequence of events back to the original starting point

(ex: a child knows a flattened ball of clay can be rolled back into a ball)

What happens in the formal operational stage (12 years & older)?

- abstract thinking

- hypothetical reasoning

- metacognition

What is abstract thinking?

involves examining possibilities that are NOT entirely based on tangible (concrete) experiences

(ex: a child understands justice or freedom, not just concrete rules)

What is hypothetical reasoning?

involves predicting and systematically testing ideas that lead to logical conclusions

(ex: a person thinks about what would happen if humans could live on Mars, even though it's not real yet)

What is metacognition?

involves examining one's mental processes

(ex: a person realizes they don't understand a topic, so they change how they study)

What is Vgotsky's Social Cognitive Theory?

children learn through social interaction; their thinking is shaped by culture and communication with others

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

refers to what the learner can do with help from a more knowledgeable other, such as a teacher or mentor

(ex: a child can't solve a math problem alone, but can solve it with a teacher's help)

What is scaffolding?

process in which the more knowledgeable other provides support or mentorship to a learner in order for them to achieve a new skill

(ex: a teacher gives hints and step-by-step help, then gradually lets the child do it independently)

What is fluid intelligence?

ability to solve new problems and think quickly, independent of prior knowledge

(ex: a person figures out a new puzzle they have never seen before)

What is crystallized intelligence?

knowledge and skills gained from experience and education

(ex: a person answers a history or vocabulary question using what they've learned)

What is language?

system of symbols (words) and rules used to communicate meaning; becomes mutually agreed upon

What are the basic structures of language?

- symbols

- phonemes

- morphemes

- syntax

- grammar

What are phonemes?

basic speech sounds

What are morphemes?

series of sound values that carry meaning

What is syntax?

correct word order

What is grammar?

other complex rules existing in the language

What are the stages in language development?

- cooing

- babbling

- one word stage

- telegraphic stage

During what duration of a child's early life does the pre-speech stage occur?

0 - 6 months

During what duration of a child's early life does the babbling stage occur?

6 - 8 months

During what duration of a child's early life does the one word (holophrastic) stage occur?

9 - 18 months

During what duration of a child's early life does the combining words (telegraphic) stage occur?

18 - 36 months

What is overgeneralization?

error in language learning where a child applies a language rule too broadly, even when it's not correct

(ex: a child says "foots" instead of "feet")

What is the ecological systems theory?

explains how a person's development is influenced by different levels of their environment, from immediate surroundings to broader society

What are microsystems?

closest environment; direct interaction

(ex: family, school, friends)

What are mesosystems?

connections between microsystems

(ex: parent - teacher relationship)

What are exosystems?

indirect influence; person isn't directly involved

(ex: local amenities, health resources, parent's workplace)

What are macrosystems?

cultural and societal values

(ex: dominant ideologies, culture, law)

What are chronosystems?

change over time

(ex: historical events, divorce, moving)

What are the types of parenting styles?

- permissive

- authoritarian

- authoritative

What is the permissive parenting style?

where the parent is very warm and loving, but gives few rules or limits

(ex: parents let their children be on their iPads 24/7)

What is the authoritarian parenting style?

where the parent is strict and controlling, with high rules and low warmth

(ex: a parent expects the child to obey without questions)

What is the authoritative parenting style?

where the parent is warm and supportive, but also sets clear rules and expectations

(ex: a parent explains rules and allows the child to ask questions)

What are attachment styles and theories?

connection between parents, or the caregiver, and children

What are the types of attachment styles and theories?

- secure

- insecure

What are the three types of insecure attachment styles/theories?

- avoidant

- anxious

- disorganized

What is the secure attachment style?

when a child trusts their caregiver and feels safe, so they feel comfortable exploring the world

(ex: a child shows distress when caregiver leaves, but is comforted when they return)

What is the avoidant attachment style?

when a child seems to not care when caregiver leaves or returns

(ex: a child plays alone and ignores the parent coming back)

What is the anxious attachment style?

when a child is very upset when caregiver leaves, but not easily comforted when they return

(ex: a child cries and clings, but still seems angry or unsure even after the parent returns)

What is the disorganized attachment style?

when a child shows confused or inconsistent behavior around caregiver

(ex: a child may approach the parent but then suddenly freeze or act fearful)

What is temperament?

person's natural, inborn style of reacting to the world, like their mood, energy, and emotional intensity

What is the stage theory of psychosocial development?

Erikson's life span development theory proposing that personality develops through eight stages, each marked by a psychosocial conflict whose resolution shapes identity and behavior

What are the benefits of friendships for young people?

- can offer companionship, validation, intimacy, emotional support, and assistance/advice

- can improve learning conflict resolutions, social skills, and exchange between individuals

How are relationships with peers?

- different than with siblings or other adults because of relatively equal power

- generally formed based on proximity, similarity of age, interests, maturity level, or behavior

- with young children, this is often manifested through how they play with others or individually

What is the order of play types?

1. Solitary Play

2. Onlooker Play

3. Parallel Play

4. Cooperative Play

5. Pretend Play

What is solitary play?

where a child plays alone, focusing on their own activity without awareness of others

(ex: toddler stacking blocks by themselves)

What is onlooker play?

where a child observes others playing but does not participate, often showing interest or curiosity

(ex: a child watching other kids play tag)

What is parallel play?

children play side-by-side with similar toys or activities but with little or no interaction

(ex: two toddlers playing with toy cars next to each other without sharing or talking)

What is cooperative play?

children play together in an organized way, sharing goals, rules, and roles

(ex: group of kids playing a board game or building something together)

What is pretend play?

where children use imagination to represent people, objects, or situations as something else

(ex: child pretending a box is a car)

What shapes adolescent relationships?

- often extremely sensitive to what others may think, shaping their social behavior

- awareness of others can create a stronger of self, as they can become overly focused on themselves and their own flaws

- may believe that everyone is always watching them and notice their failures (imaginary audience)

What else shapes adolescent relationships?

- larger focus on individual relationships than groups

- form of egocentrism and can lead to personal fable

- more sense of self and individual focus brings relationships closer

What is personal fable?

where teens believe their experiences, feelings, and problems are unique and that others cannot understand them

(ex: teenager believing their heartbreak cannot be understood by anyone else)

What shapes social relationships in adulthood?

- committed relationships formed by many people that are far more involved and serious

- continued emphasis on closeness and intimacy that leads adults to form new family structures in both traditional and non-traditional ways

What else shapes social relationships in adulthood?

- they may NOT have a social group that they spend as much time with, compared to adolescents

- relationships are formed from different sources, such as coworkers, activities, place of worship, extended family, long-term friends, etc.

- often center around different purposes, such as utility or convenience

- can reflect different attachment styles

What are the cultural differences in adult relationships?

- witnesses a higher frequency of major life events than any other stages

- significant life events in adulthood may be experienced differently in different cultures

(ex: average age of a 1st marriage, having their 1st child, and even retirement)

What is learning?

relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience; must involve observable actions

What is classical conditioning?

type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to create a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response

(ex: dog learns to salivate when it hears a bell because the bell was repeatedly paired with food)

What are the three parts of classical conditioning?

- 2 stimuli (unconditioned, conditioned, and neutral)

- 1 response (unconditioned and conditioned)

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning

(ex: food makes dog salivate)

Are conditioned and neutral stimuli the same?

yes; they both do NOT trigger a physiological response immediately meaning it has to be learnt first

(ex: dog with car keys; neutral -> conditioned)

What is the unconditioned response?

automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus

(ex: dog salivates when in the presence of food)

What is a conditioned response?

learned response to the conditioned stimulus

(ex: dog responds to the shaking of car keys)

What is acquisition?

stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is first paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response

(ex: dog learns to salivate to a bell after repeated pairings with food)

What is extinction?

weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

(ex: dog stops salivating to the bell after the bell is rung many times without food)

What is spontaneous recovery?

reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a pause

(ex: dog salivates to the bell again after a day, even though the response had disappeared)

What is stimulus generalization?

when a conditioned response occurs to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

(ex: dog salivates to a bell that sounds slightly different from the original bell)

What is stimulus discrimination?

ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, responding only to the original conditioned stimulus

(ex: dog only salivates to the original bell sound, not to other bells)

What is habituation?

simple form of learning in which an organism decreases or stops responding to a repeated stimulus over time

(ex: baby stops noticing the sound of a ticking clock after a while)

What is operant conditioning?

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by rewards (reinforcements) or punishments

(ex: rat presses a lever to get food, so it presses the lever more often)

What are reinforcers?

any stimulus that increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again

What are primary reinforcers?

something you do NOT have to be told to want

(ex: choosing money OVER money)

What are secondary reinforcers?

something you have to learn to want or be motivated from

(ex: choosing money OVER chocolate; grades)

What is shaping?

reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the behavior is achieved

(ex: teaching a dog to roll over by first rewarding it for sitting, then lying down, then rolling)