Philosophy Exam 1

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A posteriori

Something known as a result of an experience

A priori

Something that is known prior to or without necessary experience

Abduction

An argument that makes an appeal by inference to the best explanation

Aesthetics

what is beauty?

Analytic Truth

Demonstrably true by virtue of the logical form or the meanings of the component truths

Apology

to speak before, in time and space

Coherence test for truth

interconnectedness of a proposition with a specified system of propositions

Contingent truth

a belief that is true but might not have been, is based on experiences

Correspondence test for truth

agreement between a proposition and an actual state-of-affairs

Deduction

a process of reasoning from one principle to another by means of accepted rules of inference.

Epistemology

what is reasonable?

Ethics

what is good?

Fallacy

an error of reasoning

Induction

an argument where the premises point out several cases of some pattern, and the conclusion states that this pattern will hold in general

Logic

the study of the rule of valid inference and “rational argument”. In general, a sense of order

Materialist

a person who considers material possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values.

Metaphysics

what is real?

Necessary truth

lies beyond the range of all possible doubt and refutation, are a priori

Philosophy

The love of wisdom

Pragmatic test for truth

usefulness of a proposition in achieving certain intellectual goals

Premise

assertion assumed to be true, made to support/further an argument

Rhetoric

the persuasive use of language to convince other people to accept their beliefs

Reductio ad Absurdum

Reduce to absurdity

Sophist

a paid teacher of philosophy and rhetoric in ancient Greece, associated in popular thought with moral skepticism and specious reasoning.

Sound argument

a deductive argument that is valid and has only true premises

Synthetic truth

a non-contradictory proposition in which the predicate is not entailed by the subject (it adds an idea to the subject which is not already contained within it)

Valid argument

an argument that follows established truth preserving rules

Wisdom

knowledge rightly applied

Class definition of Philosophy?

Love of knowledge

Class definition of Wisdom?

Knowledge rightly applied

LIst and define the 4 topical divisions of philosophy:

Metaphysics: What is Real?

Epistemology: What is Reasonable?

Ethics: What is Good?

Aesthetics: What is Beauty?

List the 4 chronological periods of philosophy in order and their area of interest:

Ancients: Ontology

Medievals: Theology

Moderns: Epistemology

Post-Moderns: Language

What are the 3 skills needed for philosophy?

Analysis, Assessment, Argument

List and define the 3 tests for truth and know in which order they are used:

Correspondence Test for Truth: an agreement between a proposition and an actual state-of-affairs

Coherence Test for Truth: interconnectedness of a proposition with a specified system of propositions

Pragmatic Test for Truth: usefulness of a proposition in achieving certain intellectual goals

What is an argument?

A sequence of assertions or statements to back up a viewpoint

What are the components of an argument?

The premises and the conclusion

Explain the pattern of history presented in lecture:

The teacher teaches the student, the student may disagree with the teacher if disagreement is objective, the student teaches the grand-student, the grand-student may disagree with the student if objective, the grand-student may borrow some ideas from the teacher.

What is the Socratic Method as it was presented in class and how does it work?

Begin with the pretense of knowledge, find errors in your knowledge through constant questions and answers, continue the questions and answers until truth is found, come to agreement (but not necessarily a full one)

What is the test for invalidity and how does it work?

The test for invalidity is a method of testing deductive arguments to see if they hold true. It works by assuming the premises are true but the conclusion is false, and then attempting to make a coherent story that leaves the premises as true and the conclusion as false

What are the three major types of logic discussed in class and how do they function?

Deductive, inductive, and abductive; detective works by a process of reasoning from one principle to another by means of accepted rules of inference, inductive works by an argument where the premises point out several cases of some pattern, and the conclusion states that this pattern will hold in general, and abductive works by An argument that makes an appeal by inference to the best explanation

Mere Assertion

Repeating a claim as if it were true without providing evidence or justification

Begging the Question

Assuming the truth of what one is trying to prove within the argument itself

Vicious Circle

A form of circular reasoning where the conclusion is used as a premise to support itself

Irrelevancies

Introducing information unrelated to the argument in order to distract from the issue

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself

Unclear / Shifting Conclusions

Changing the conclusion of an argument during discussion to avoid criticism or refutation

Changing Meanings

Altering the meaning of important terms in an argument so that the conclusion appears valid

Distraction

Shifting attention away from the main issue to avoid addressing the argument

Pseudo-Questions

Questions that appear meaningful but are actually misleading or impossible to answer logically

Dubious Authority

Appealing to an authority who is not a reliable expert on the subject

The Texas Sharpshooter

Selecting only evidence that supports a conclusion while ignoring conflicting evidence

Slippery Slope

Arguing that one action will inevitably lead to extreme consequences without sufficient evidence

Attacking a Straw Man

Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack

Appeal to Pity

Attempting to persuade by generating sympathy instead of using logical reasons

Appeal to Force

Using threats or intimidation to make someone accept a conclusion

Inappropriate Arguments

Using arguments that are logically irrelevant or unsuitable for the issue being discussed

What is the process of Reductio ad Absurdum?

assuming an argument's conclusion is true, then tracing it to an illogical result to prove the premise is false.

What is an argument from analogy?

The strength of the argument rests in the genuine similarity between components of the argument. No two (different) objects are completely alike, otherwise they would be identical objects.

Aristophanes, The clouds

Philosophers like Socrates teach clever arguments that allow people to avoid responsibility and manipulate truth.

Plato, the Crito

A person must obey the laws of their state, even when those laws harm them, because justice and social order depend on respect for the law.

Plato, the Phaedo

The soul is immortal, and true philosophers prepare for death because death frees the soul from the body.

Plato, the Republic

Justice exists when everyone performs the role they are best suited for, and the ideal society should be ruled by philosopher-kings.

According to the lecture, what are 2 charges against Socrates in the apology?

Corrupting the youth and Impiety

According to Socrates, what are the 5 “Moral Prerequisites” for doing philosophy discussed in the Apology?

Humility – Recognizing one’s ignorance, Love of truth, Intellectual honesty, Moral courage – Willingness to question authority, Commitment to reason and dialogue

What accusations do Socrates' “first” accusers make against him?

Investigates things in the heavens and under the earth, Makes weak arguments appear strong, Teaches others to do the same

According to Socrates, what did he do to bring on such accusations?

He questioned people who claimed to be wise and exposed their ignorance, which embarrassed them and made them angry.

After questioning politicians, poets, and craftsmen, why does Socrates believe he is wiser than some people who are renowned for their wisdom?

They believed they were wise but were not. Socrates knew that he did not know. Therefore, he says he is wiser because he recognizes his ignorance.

In response to a question from Socrates’ student Chaerephon, what did the oracle of Apollo at Delphi declare about Socrates?

“No one is wiser than Socrates”

According to Socrates, how did he get a reputation for corrupting the young?

Several of his students, including well-known young men, would go on to defect from athens and join sparta

What accusations do Socrates’ “later” accusers make against him?

Led by Meletus, Anytus, and Lycon, they accuse him of Corrupting the youth, Not believing in the gods of Athens, Introducing new spiritual beings

How does Socrates try to defend himself against the charge that he corrupts the young?

He argues no one intentionally corrupts those around them, because corrupted people would harm him. If he corrupted anyone unintentionally, he should be taught, not punished.

How does Socrates try to defend himself against the charge that he does not believe in the gods?

Socrates points out a contradiction: His accusers say he believes in spiritual beings (daimons), but spiritual beings are children or servants of gods. So believing in them means he must believe in gods.

If the jury had been willing to acquit Socrates on the condition that he stop practicing philosophy Socrates says that he would not have agreed to this condition. Why?

He believes that obeying God is more important than obeying the court. His mission is to examine life and pursue truth. He says: “The unexamined life is not worth living.”

What does Socrates mean by saying that he is like a gadfly to the city of Athens?

Socrates says he is like a gadfly (a biting fly) that keeps a lazy horse awake. Meaning that Athens is the slow horse & Socrates annoys people with questions so they think about truth and virtue.

What punishment does Socrates at first suggest for himself? Why?

Free meals at the Prytaneum (a public honor for heroes). Because he believes he benefited the city by encouraging wisdom.

Why does Socrates not suggest that he be exiled?

Socrates says exile would not work because Other cities would also become angry when he questions them & He cannot stop practicing philosophy. So exile would simply delay the same problem elsewhere.

Socratic Argument – Method

Method 1. Begin with the pretense of knowledge

2. By question & answer “error” is discovered (demonstrated?)

3. Continue question & answer in search of “truth”

4. Agreement (not necessarily full realized).

Stages of Wisdom

– I assume that I rightly know X

– 1st stage of wisdom: realizing our own failure

– 2nd stage of wisdom: motivated searching for truth

– 3rd stage of wisdom: knowledge

– 4th stage of wisdom: applying that knowledge to the stages of wisdom again

Hume’s Fork