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Term-Length Differences

House members serve 2-year terms, Senators serve 6-year terms.

Constituencies

House members represent smaller districts, Senators represent entire states.

Senate

The upper house of Congress, with equal representation (2 per state).

Equal Representation

Every state gets two Senators, regardless of population.

President of the Senate

The Vice President of the U.S. presides over the Senate and casts tie-breaking votes.

Debate Bills

Congress members debate proposed legislation.

Chamber Specific Procedures

Each house has distinct rules for passing bills.

Debate Rules/Formality

The Senate allows for unlimited debate, the House has strict time limits.

Filibuster

A tactic in the Senate where a senator speaks indefinitely to block a vote.

Cloture

A vote to end a filibuster (requires 60 Senators).

Holds

A senator can request to delay a bill before it reaches the floor.

Unanimous Consent

Senate agreements that speed up the legislative process.

Treaty Ratification

The Senate approves treaties negotiated by the President (requires 2/3 vote).

Confirmation

The Senate confirms Presidential appointments (e.g., judges, Cabinet members).

Advise & Consent

The Senate’s role in approving Presidential nominations and treaties.

House of Representatives

The lower house, with proportional representation based on state population.

Proportional Representation

House seats are distributed based on state population.

National Census

Conducted every 10 years to determine population shifts and House seat allocation.

Redistricting

Redrawing Congressional district boundaries.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating district lines for political advantage.

Unequal Representation

Districts may have unequal populations, impacting voting power.

Speaker of the House

The leader of the House, sets legislative priorities.

Rules Committee

Controls the flow of bills in the House, sets debate limits.

Committee of the Whole

A procedural device to expedite House legislation.

Discharge Petitions

Forces a stalled bill out of a committee to a House vote.

Coalitions & Caucuses

Groups of legislators with common interests (e.g., Black Caucus).

Passing the Federal Budget

Congress must pass a budget to fund government operations.

Raising Revenue

The House initiates tax bills.

Coining Money

Congress controls currency production.

Declaring War

Congress holds the sole power to declare war.

Maintaining the Armed Forces

Congress funds and regulates the military.

Enacting Legislation/Passing Bills

Congress passes laws.

Legislative Oversight

Congress monitors the executive branch and agencies.

Party Leadership

Majority and minority leaders organize their party’s agenda.

Majority/Minority Leaders

Leaders of the two main parties in each chamber.

Whips

Ensure party members vote along party lines.

Committees

Groups that focus on specific policy areas (e.g., Foreign Affairs).

Standing Committee

Permanent committees (e.g., Budget Committee).

Conference Committee

Resolves differences in House and Senate bill versions.

Committee Leadership

Seniority-based positions that control committee actions.

Pork Barrel Legislation

Government funding directed to local projects for votes.

Logrolling

Legislators trade votes to pass bills.

Ideological Divisions

Partisan differences affect legislation.

Divided Government

One party controls the presidency, the other controls Congress.

Partisan Votes

Votes along party lines.

Gridlock

When partisan conflict prevents action.

Negotiation & Compromise

Necessary to pass laws in a divided government.

“Lame Duck”

A President or Congress member with limited time left in office.

Economic Issues

Budget deficits, taxation, and spending debates.

Fiscal Policy

Government spending and taxation policies.

Monetary Policy

Federal Reserve policies on money supply and interest rates.

Discretionary Spending

Government spending that can be adjusted annually (e.g., defense).

Mandatory Spending

Spending required by law (e.g., Social Security).

Budget Deficit

When the government spends more than it collects in taxes.

Environmental Issues

Laws on climate change, pollution, and conservation.

Social Issues

Laws on abortion, gun control, and civil rights.

Entitlements

Government programs that provide benefits by law (e.g., Social Security).

Social Security

A federal program providing retirement income.

Medicare

Health care for seniors (65+).

Medicaid

Health care for low-income individuals.

Veteran’s Benefits

Services for military veterans.

Unemployment Insurance

Provides benefits for jobless workers.

Means-Tested

Programs based on income level.

Necessary & Proper Clause

Congress has implied powers beyond what’s listed in the Constitution.

Trustee

A legislator votes based on personal judgment.

Delegate

A legislator votes based on constituent wishes.

Politico

A legislator who balances trustee and delegate roles.

“Laws vs. Rules”

The distinction between laws passed by Congress and procedural rules.

Baker v. Carr (1961)

Established 'one person, one vote' and allowed federal courts to review redistricting cases.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional if it lacks compelling state interest.

Policy Agenda & Initiatives

The set of issues that a president prioritizes during their term.

Formal Powers

Clearly listed in Article II (e.g., veto, commander-in-chief).

Informal Powers

Not explicitly stated but implied (e.g., executive orders).

State of the Union

An annual speech by the president to outline policy goals.

Bureaucratic Appointments

The president appoints officials to lead federal agencies.

Cabinet Members

Heads of executive departments who advise the president.

White House Staff

The president’s personal and political advisors (e.g., Chief of Staff).

Veto

The president rejects a bill.

Pocket Veto

The president doesn’t sign a bill within 10 days, and Congress adjourns.

Domestic Policy

The president’s actions within the U.S. (e.g., economy, healthcare).

Executive Orders

Presidential directives that carry the force of law but do not require Congress.

Signing Statements

Statements issued when signing a law to express concerns or interpretation.

Judicial Appointments

The president nominates federal judges, including Supreme Court justices.

Foreign Policy

The president’s role in international affairs and diplomacy.

Commander-in-Chief

The president controls the military, but Congress declares war.

War Powers Act/Resolution (1973)

Limits the president’s military power by requiring Congressional approval after 60 days.

Chief Diplomat

The president represents the U.S. in foreign affairs and negotiates treaties.

Treaties

Formal agreements with other nations, requiring Senate approval.

Executive Agreements

Similar to treaties, but do not require Senate approval.

Ambassadors

Appointed officials who represent the U.S. in foreign countries.

Bully Pulpit

The president uses the media and speeches to shape public opinion.

Power to Persuade

The president’s ability to influence Congress and the public.

Approval Ratings/Popularity

Higher ratings help the president pass policies; lower ratings weaken influence.

Twenty-Second Amendment

Limits the president to two terms (8 years).

Article II

Defines the powers of the presidency.

Executive Privilege

The president’s right to withhold information from Congress or the courts.

Departments

The 15 executive departments (e.g., State, Defense, Education).

Agencies

Subunits of departments (e.g., FBI under the Justice Department).

Commissions

Independent regulatory bodies (e.g., Securities and Exchange Commission).

Government Corporations

Businesses run by the government (e.g., USPS, Amtrak).