final exam - anatomy 2 lab

inspiration

air moving from atmosphere into lungs

expiration

air expelled from respiratory tree into atmosphere

types of pressure gradients

atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonic pressure, intrapleural pressure

atmospheric pressure

pressure exerted by atmosphere on body

intrapulmonary pressure

pressure within the lungs

intrapleural pressure

pressure within pleural cavity

diaphragm during inspiration

contracted and flattened

diaphragm during expiration

relaxed and concave

during inspiration

thoracic volume increases, pressure decreases

during expiration

thoracic volume decreases, pressure increases

inspiratory muscles

external intercostals, diaphragm (prime mover)

forced expiratory muscles

internal intercostals, rectus abdominis, external abdominal obliques

tidal volume

amount of air inhaled or exhaled in one breath

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled

vital capacity (VC)

amount of air that can be inhaled and then exhaled with maximum effort; deepest possible breath

inspiratory capacity (IC)

maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration

functional residual capacity

amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration; can never be emptied from lungs

total lung capacity (TLC)

maximum amount of air the lungs contain

vital capacity formula

VC = expiratory reserve volume (ERV) + tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

inspiratory capacity formula

IC = tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

functional residual capacity

FRC = residual volume (RV) + expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

total lung capacity formula

TLC = residual volume (RV) + vital capacity (VC)

hypoventilation (slow, shallow breathing)

raises CO2, lowers blood pH

more H+ means

lower pH

hyperventilation (rapid, deep breathing)

losing large quantities of CO2, little change in O2, higher blood pH

obstructive diseases

asthma, COPD, chronic bronchitis

restrictive disease

pulmonary fibrosis

digestion

process of breaking down molecules small enough to be absorbed across the cell membrane

five basic processes of digestion

ingestion, movement of food, digestion, absorption, defecation

organs of digestive system

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

acessory organs of digestive system

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder

salivary glands

parotid glands, sublingual glands, submandibular glands

four major areas of stomach

cardia, fundus, corpus, pylorus

fundus produces

hydrochloric acid

pyloric glands secrete

mucus

small intestine does

90% of absorption of nutrients

small intestine parts

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

ileum

ileocecal sphincter at distal most portion

large intestine divisions

cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum

liver

upper right quadrant, under diaphragm; two lobes; produces bile

bile

detergent, not an enzyme; emulsify fat

gall bladder

pear shaped sac in depression of liver; stores bile and concentrates it

pancreas

produce digestive enzymes

esophagus histology

stomach histology

small intestine histology

liver histology

portal triad histology

portal triad consists of

hepatic artery, portal vein, bile duct

pancreas histology

components of urinary system

kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra

function of urinary system

removing and restoring water and solutes from blood, excreting urine

urine consists of

water, nitrogenous wastes, toxins, H+, ions

kidney external anatomy

hilus, renal artery, renal vein, ureter

renal hilus

entrance/exit for ureter, renal artery, and vein, nerve, lymphatics; entrance to renal sinus

renal fascia

renal capsule (collagen and elastin); adipose capsule, protects and anchors kidney

diagram of renal capsule

renal capsule

kidney internal anatomy (layers)

renal cortex, renal medulla

renal cortex consists of

renal columns

renal medulla consists of

renal pyramids, papilla, minor and major calyx, and renal pelvis

diagram of renal cortex

renal cortex

diagram of renal medulla

renal medulla

diagram of renal pyramid

renal pyramid

diagram of renal column

renal column

diagram of renal papilla

renal papilla

diagram of calyces

minor and major calyx

diagram of renal pelvis

renal pelvis

function of nephron

filtration, reabsorption, secretion

filtration

pressure across endothelium

reabsorption

diffusion and active transport

secretion

tubule cells secrete additional materials directly into filtrate

nephron is located in

renal pyramid

renal corpuscle consists of

glomerulus, bowman’s capsule (parietal, visceral, capsular space)

kidney histology

nephron histology

renal corpuscle histology

glomerulus histology

pct - more abundant (longer than the dct); brush border present, dct - less abundant; no brush border

collecting duct histology

ureter histology

urinary bladder histology

male urethra histology

oogenesis histology

secondary oocyte in tertiary follicle

proliferative phase - growing back of the stratus functionalis; long, straight uterine glands

secretory phase - signals for water retention, softening of uterine lining, glands (convoluted) provide glycogen, substantial blood supply, awaiting fertilized egg implantation

menstrual phase - if NO fertilization, uterine lining shed (endometrium thinner, in disarray)

spermatogenesis

most reabsorption takes place in the

proximal convoluted tubule; fine tuning after in loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct

mechanisms for movement

active transport, diffusion, facilitated diffusion, secondary active transport, osmosis

ureter

union with bladder, no valve, prevention of reflux of urine into ureters, pressure on bladder wall; function to transport urine, peristaltic waves

urinary bladder

hollow muscular organ, lies retroperitoneally in pelvic cavity, rises in abdominal cavity as fills

urethra

final passageway for urine from body, sphincters (external and internal), trigone zone (2 ureteral openings and urethral opening)

female urethra (stained blue)

female urethra

flow of urine

proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct, renal papillae, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

male reproductive structures

spermatogenesis occurs in

seminiferous tubules

process of spermatogenesis