Approaches mix + exam prep (04/26)

The behaviourist approach

Suggests that all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical and operant conditioning. Hence only behaviour which can be objectively measured and observed is studied.

Due to Watson and Skinner disagreeing with the subjective nature of Wundt’s introspective methods.

The basic laws governing learning are the same across both non-humans and humans, thus animals can replace humans in behaviourist experimental research

Classical conditioning

Learning through associations made between the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus.

Pavalov’s Dogs

Aim: To investigate how learning can occur through association (classical conditioning)

Procedure:

1. Dog’s presented with food (US) which naturally produced salivation (UR)

2. The food was then paired with a bell (NS) several times

3. Eventually, the bell was presented without food

Results:

• The dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell alone

• The bell became a conditioned stimulus and salivation became a conditioned response

Conclusions:

• Learning can occur through association

Extinction

When the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus so the conditioned response becomes extinct/disappears

Spontaneous recovery

When the individual carries out the conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred

Generalisation

When slight changes in the conditioned stimulus still produces the same conditioned response (e.g. different pitches of the bell used in Pavalov’s experiment)

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences

Types of operant conditioning

Positive reinforcement, positive punishment, negative reinforcement, negative punishment

Skinner’s Box

Aim: To investigate how behaviour is learned through reinforcement (operant conditioning)

Procedure:

1. Skinner placed rats in a Skinner box containing a lever

2. When the rat accidentally pressed the lever, it received a food pellet (positive reinforcement)

3. In another condition, the box delivered a mild electric shock, which could be stopped by pressing the lever (negative reinforcement)

Results:

• The rats learned to press the lever more frequently

• Behaviour that was reinforced increased in frequency

Conclusions

• Behaviour is shaped by its consequences

• Positive and negative reinforcement both strengthen reinforcement

Behaviourist approach - Evaluation (AO3)

• (+): Scientific rigour - Makes use of highly scientific research methods such as laboratory experiments. BY focusing on observable and measurable behaviour, scientific credibility is increased

• (+): Real life applications - Increased understanding of classical and operant conditioning has led to the development of treatments and therapies for serious disorders

• Environmental determinism

• Cost-benefit analysis of animal; research

Social learning theory (SLT)

Suggests that learning occurs both directly, through classical and operant conditioning and indirectly through vicarious reinforcement

Social learning theory learning stages

1. An observer identifies themselves with a desirable role model

2. Role model displays or models a specific behaviour which is imitated by the observer

3. The likelihood that the observed behaviour will be imitated is increased if the role model is seen to be '‘vicariously reinforced’ or rewarded, thus the consequences of the observed behaviour is more important than the observation alone

Role model

Usually attractive, has high social status,of similar age, and same gender

Identification

The process by which an observer relates to/ associates themselves with a role model and aspires to become more like that role model

Vicarious reinforcement

A type of indirect learning that occurs when an observer sees their role model being rewarded for displaying a certain behaviour. The observer is then motivated to imitate this behaviour, in an effort to receive the same reward,.

The 4 mediational processes

Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation

Bandura et al. (1961)

Aim: To investigate whether aggression can be learned through observation and imitation (social learning theory)

Procedure:

• Sample of 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls) between 3 and 6 years old

• Children were divided into groups: real-life aggressive model, same models displaying aggressive acts on film, aggressive cartoon character

Results:

• Children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour

• Boys showed more physical aggression than girls

• Children more likely to imitate same-sex models

Conclusions:

• Behaviour can be learned through observation and imitation

• Supports social learning theory, showing that behaviour is not just learned through direct reinforcement but also through observing others

Behaviourist approach - Evaluation (AO3)

• (+): Acknowledges the role of human cognition as it recognises the role of mediational processes

• (-):Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment ignores the biological differences between boys and girls. Boys exhibiting higher aggressive imitation may be due to higher levels of testosterone and hormonal differences

• (-):Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment suffers from demand characteristics. The Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit. Lacks Mundane realism aswell

Cognitive approach

There are 3 levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

We are only aware of our conscious. Contents of the preconscious are revealed through parapraxes, slips of the tongue and dreaming.

Inferences of the unconscious can be made through psychoanalysis (analysing symbols in dreams) and psychotherapy

The unconscious stores our biological drives and instincts as well as upsetting and disturbing thoughts

Freud’s Tripartit Personality

• Id - The innate part of the personality, and operates on the pleasure principle. Constantly demands instant gratification and is in conflict with the superego

• Ego - Formed during the first 3 years of life. Operates on the reality principle. Helps to resolve the conflict between the Id and the superego through the use of defence mechanisms (repression, denial and displacement

• Superego - Formed at the end of the phallic stage. Operates on the morality principle . Contains the child’s internalised sens of right and wrong, based on their same-sex parent. In constant conflict with the Id

Idea surrounding the psychosexual stages

• There are a series of developmental stages through which all children progress in the same order

• Each stage is characterised by a conflict, which must be resolved to pass to the next stage

• Failure to resolve the conflict results in ‘fixation’ at that stage, where dysfunctional behaviours associated with that stage are carried forwards to adulthood

The psychosexual stages

Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6), Latency (6-12), Genital (6-12)

What the Oedipus and Electra complexes were developed on

Case studies conducted on Little Hans, where Freud suggested that Little Hans’ phobia of horses stemmed from a fear towards his father, due to having sexual desires for his mother

Psychodynamic approach - Evaluation (AO3)

• (+): Practical applications - psychotherapy and psychoanalysis are both rooted in the psychodynamic approach and still have modern uses. Study: Kohlenberg (Functional Analytical Cognitive Therapy)

• (-): Unconscious concepts - we cannot objectively and systematically measure the unconscious as we are unaware of it, making this approach unfalsifiable (Karl Popper). This approach does not improve the scientific credibility of psychology

• (-): The use of an idiographic approach / Case studies - Freud’s theories based on data from individual cases and interviews of which the participants are often of some kind of psychological interest, and so isn’t generalisable and lacks ecological validity. Mainly qualitative data is collected, meaning the researcher draws subjective conclusions.

• (-): Psychic determinism - Freud suggests that all behaviour is the product of the unconscious and internal conflicts (Id and Superego) over which we have no control

Humanistic approach

• Assumes that we all have free will and are ‘mistresses’ and ‘masters’ of our own development, so we can ignore the influence of internal and external factors on our behaviour

• Sees self-actualisation, as achieved by being the top level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, as a crucial part of being human

• Due to free will, we also have the ability to progress through this hierarchy of needs and better ourselves

Incongruence and self-actualisation

• ‘Self’ - The ideas and values we have about ourselves, including perceptionsof our abilities

• ‘Ideal self’ - Our perception of the best version of ourselves

• ‘Incongruence’ - When there is too large of a gap between the self and the ideal self. The consequent negative feelings of low self-worth and low self-esteem prevent progression through Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, thus self actualisation cannot be achieved

• ‘Congruence’ - When there is little or no gap between the self and ideal self, allowing us to progress up the hierarchy with the aim of achieveing self actualisation

• ‘Self-actualisation’ - Innate desire we all have to become the best version of ourselves, through personal and psychological growth

Rogerian Therapy

• Aims to reduce the gap between the self and ideal self, thus increasing the likelihood of achieving congruence and subsequently, self-actualisation

• Views a good therapist as being open, genuine, empathetic, and providing unconditional positive regard

• Views patients as ‘experts’ of their conditions, so they are encouraged to arrive at their own solutions to these problems, with the help of a therapist

• Rogers and Maslow - ‘conditions such as low self-esteem and low self-worth originate in childhood, where adults restrict the love they show towards their children by imposing conditions of worth, representing a lack of unconditional positive regard’

Humanistic approach - Evaluation (AO3)

(+): Practical application to therapy - Roger’s client-centred therapy has had a major impact on counselling psychology. Such therapies are used in both the UK and the US

(+): Holistic approach - Focuses on the individual’s subjective experiences as a whole making it a refreshing alternative, compared to other reductionist explanations of behaviour (e.g. biological approach)

(-): Untestable and subjective concepts - Lacks empirical evidence and has no possibility of systematically observing and measuring the processes it describes. Self-actualisation cannot be objectively measured due to individual differences and a lack of a universal measuring scale. Congruence may also be up to personal judgement. This does little to improve the scientific credibility of both humanism and Psychology

(-): Culture-bound explanation of behaviour - Maslow’s hierarchy, the need to improve oneself, and congruence can be mostly viewed as Western, individualist cultures. Thus humanism may not be accepted by other culture such as Eastern collectivist cultures.

Cognitive approach

• Use computer models and theoretical models to better understand and model cognitive processes, through the use of analogies

• The cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes such as memory, attention, perception and thinking. These processes cannot be directly observed, so psychologists study them through inference, by analysing behaviour.

• Sees mental processes as being separate from the brain

• computer analogy - the mind works like a computer by taking in input, processing information, and producing an output (behaviour).

• The approach uses theoretical models to represent mental processes, often shown as diagrams or flowcharts.

• Schemas, which are mental frameworks developed from experience that help us organise and interpret information. While schemas allow faster processing, they can lead to biases and distortions.

• Supported by cognitive neuroscience, which studies how brain structures and processes are involved in cognition. For example, Endel Tulving (1984) found different types of long-term memory (episodic and semantic) are located in different brain areas.

• The approach uses scientific methods, such as controlled experiments, to study mental processes objectively.

Cognitive approach - Evaluation (AO3)

(+): Use of scientific methods, such as controlled laboratory experiments - means research has high reliability replicability, increasing the credibility of the approach.

(+): Practical applications - treating mental disorders such as Depression through therapies like CBT, showing real-world value.

(+): Support from cognitive neuroscience. Brain scanning techniques provide objective evidence of mental processes, increasing validity.

(-): Machine reductionism. The computer analogy oversimplifies human behaviour by ignoring emotional and motivational factors

(-): reliance on inference. Since mental processes cannot be directly observed, conclusions may lack validity and could be incorrect.

(-): Considered soft deterministic - suggests behaviour is influenced by internal processes, which may reduce the role of free will.

The biological approach

• Explains behaviour through biological structures and processes within the body, particularly the brain, genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system.

• Assumes that behaviour has a physical basis and can be explained by brain activity. The brain is divided into different areas, each responsible for specific functions (localisation of function).

• Genetics. Behaviour is influenced by genes inherited from our parents - studied using twin studies, comparing MZ and DZ twins to determine the heritability of traits.

• Focus on neurochemistry, meaning behaviour is affected by neurotransmitters in the brain. (e.g. low serotonin and depression)

• Grounded in evolution, based on Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Behaviours that increase survival are more likely to be passed on.

• Research methods include brain scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG, which allow scientists to observe brain activity.

Biological approach - AO3

(+): Use of scientific methods, such as brain scans and controlled experiments. These are objective and reliable, increasing the scientific credibility of the approach.

(+): Real-world applications, particularly in treating mental disorders such as Depression using drug therapies (e.g. antidepressants), which have been shown to be effective.

(+): Support from twin studies, which show a high concordance rate for certain disorders, suggesting a strong genetic influence. (Nesdat et al. - OCD)

(-): Biological reductionism. The approach reduces complex behaviours to genes, brain structures or chemicals, ignoring environmental and cognitive factors.

(-): Biological determinism, as it suggests behaviour is controlled by biological factors, leaving little room for free will.

(-): Twin studies may be criticised because identical twins often share similar environments, meaning results may not be entirely due to genetics.