Psych 325: Module Twelve, Political Psychology

According to Finkel et al. (2020), what distinguishes political sectarianism from traditional ideological polarization?

Political sectarianism focuses on hostility toward and domination of opposing partisans rather than competition between political ideas

According to Finkel et al. (2020), what are the three core ingredients of political sectarianism?

Othering, aversion, and moralization

According to Finkel et al. (2020), why is political sectarianism considered a threat to democracy?

The combination of othering, aversion, and moralization can make political opponents seem like existential threats, undermining democratic norms and cooperation

According to Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway (2003), what are the two core ideological characteristics of political conservatism?

Resistance to change and justification of inequality

According to Jost et al. (2003), political conservatism is best understood as:

A form of motivated social cognition that helps individuals manage uncertainty and threat

According to the meta-analysis conducted by Jost et al. (2003), which psychological characteristic was most strongly associated with political conservatism?

Death anxiety

According to the chapter on the political psychology of inequality, why is inequality an important topic in political psychology?

Inequality shapes attitudes, beliefs, identities, and intergroup relations, while psychological processes also help maintain or challenge inequality

According to the political psychology of inequality literature, what role do ideologies play in maintaining inequality?

Ideologies can legitimise and justify existing social arrangements, making inequality appear fair, natural, or inevitable

According to the chapter, which psychological theories are particularly important for understanding how inequality is maintained?

Social Dominance Theory and System Justification Theory

According to Osborne, Satherley, and Sibley, which Big Five personality trait is most strongly associated with political conservatism?

Openness to Experience

According to Osborne, Satherley, and Sibley's meta-analysis, how does the relationship between personality and conservatism vary across cultural contexts?

The association between personality traits and conservatism is substantially weaker in non-WEIRD countries than in WEIRD countries

What is the central conclusion of Osborne, Satherley, and Sibley's chapter regarding the relationship between Openness to Experience and conservatism?

Openness to Experience is a robust negative correlate of conservatism, but there is little evidence that the relationship is causal

According to Perry, Aronson, and Pescosolido (2021), what is meant by "pandemic precarity"?

The risk of material and financial insecurity resulting from the social and economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic

According to Perry et al. (2021), which groups were disproportionately affected by pandemic-related economic hardship in Indiana?

Black adults, people with lower levels of education, younger adults, and women

According to Perry et al. (2021), how do their findings support the Matthew Effect?

The pandemic disproportionately harmed already disadvantaged groups, thereby widening existing social and economic inequalities

According to Satherley, Greaves, Osborne, and Sibley (2020), what trend characterized New Zealand voters between 2009 and 2018?

Affective polarization increased, with supporters of different political parties expressing warmer feelings toward their own side and colder feelings toward opposing parties

According to Satherley et al. (2020), what does the rise in political polarization in New Zealand primarily reflect?

Increasing affective divisions between political groups rather than dramatic shifts in ideological extremity

What is the key implication of Satherley et al.'s (2020) findings on New Zealand voter polarization?

Political polarization can emerge and increase even in multiparty democracies such as New Zealand, not just in two-party systems

According to Satherley, Yogeeswaran, Osborne, and Sibley, what was the central finding regarding partisan cues and national symbols?

Partisan cues can increase polarization by shaping people's attitudes toward national symbols based on which political group supports them

According to Satherley et al., what psychological process helps explain why partisan cues influence attitudes toward national symbols?

Social identity and partisan group loyalty

What broader implication follows from Satherley et al.'s findings?

Partisan identities can shape attitudes even toward symbols that might otherwise be politically neutral or broadly shared

Which personality traits have been most consistently associated with political ideology in the literature?

Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness

What is the difference between political partisanship and political polarization?

Political partisanship refers to identification with and support for a political party, whereas political polarization refers to increasing divisions and hostility between political groups

What does research suggest about the relevance of partisanship and political polarization in Aotearoa New Zealand?

Both partisanship and political polarization are relevant in Aotearoa New Zealand, with evidence showing increasing affective divisions between political groups over time

According to the political psychology of inequality, how does macro-level inequality affect micro-level outcomes?

Macro-level inequality shapes individual outcomes such as health, wellbeing, social trust, life opportunities, and political attitudes, making inequality harmful across society

According to research on collective action, which factors are most likely to predict engagement in collective action?

Strong ingroup identification, perceptions of injustice, and beliefs that collective action can effectively bring about change

According to Aristotle (350 B.C.), why do different forms of government emerge?

Differences in the qualities and characteristics of people contribute to the emergence of different forms of government and states

According to Adorno et al. (1950), how might authoritarian political attitudes develop?

Children raised by strict and punitive parents may develop personality styles that make them more susceptible to authoritarian leaders

According to research on personality and political ideology, which personality trait is the strongest correlate of political beliefs?

Openness to Experience

According to Jost (2006), what are the two core and enduring features of political conservatism?

Resistance to change and acceptance of inequality

According to Sibley, Osborne, and Duckitt (2012), which Big Five personality trait is the strongest predictor of political conservatism?

Openness to Experience, which predicts conservatism approximately twice as strongly as Conscientiousness

According to research on personality and political behaviour, when are personality traits most strongly associated with socio-political attitudes and vote choice?

When individuals are politically informed, personality traits play a stronger role in shaping socio-political attitudes and vote choice

According to Jost (2006), which two features are proposed to be the core and enduring characteristics of political conservatism?

Resistance to change and acceptance of inequality

Why is the relationship between personality traits and political ideology typically stronger among people who are highly interested in politics?

People who pay more attention to politics are better able to translate their underlying personality traits and values into coherent political attitudes and vote choices

How can the existence of individuals whose political views do not match their personality traits be reconciled with research on the personality correlates of ideology?

Personality traits are correlates rather than perfect predictors of ideology, and factors such as socialisation, culture, religion, education, and life experiences can also shape political beliefs

Which personality trait has been found to correlate most consistently with political ideology in both the United States and Aotearoa New Zealand?

Openness to Experience

According to Carney et al. (2008), what were the primary aims of their three studies on personality and conservatism?

To replicate the association between the Big Five personality traits and conservatism and demonstrate that this association is not merely the result of methodological artefacts

According to Study 1 of Carney et al. (2008), which Big Five personality trait was the most consistent predictor of political conservatism across all six samples?

Openness to Experience, which consistently showed a negative association with conservatism across all six samples

According to Study 2 of Carney et al. (2008), what did non-verbal behavioural measures reveal about the relationship between personality and political conservatism?

Non-verbal indicators of Openness to Experience (e.g., smiling and facing one's conversation partner) showed the expected negative association with conservatism, whereas indicators of Conscientiousness did not

According to Study 3 of Carney et al. (2008), what differences were observed between the living and working spaces of liberals and conservatives?

Conservatives tended to have cleaner, better-lit, and more organised rooms, whereas liberals were more likely to display diverse books, travel memorabilia, art supplies, and colourful decorations

According to Carney et al. (2008), how did their research advance the literature on the personality correlates of conservatism?

By developing a short-form measure of the Big Five, showing that non-verbal indicators of Openness to Experience predict political ideology, and demonstrating that features of people's living spaces reflect their political orientation

Why might information people leave behind on social media (e.g., likes, follows, clicks, and shared content) be useful for predicting political preferences?

Digital footprints can reveal underlying personality traits, interests, values, and ideological preferences that are associated with political attitudes and voting behaviour

Why is it important to include both published and unpublished studies when evaluating the relationship between personality and conservatism?

Relying only on published or only on unpublished studies can produce biased conclusions, whereas considering both helps provide a more accurate estimate of the true association

Which of the following is an example of a methodological factor that could influence the observed relationship between personality and conservatism?

Factors such as how conservatism is measured, participants' political knowledge, age, historical context, and the personality measures used can influence the strength of the relationship without necessarily overturning the overall finding

According to Osborne et al. (2024), why should conclusions about Openness to Experience not temporally preceding conservatism be interpreted cautiously?

The available longitudinal data have important limitations, meaning that measurement issues, time intervals, developmental processes, or other methodological factors could obscure a causal influence of Openness on conservatism and therefore qualify the authors' conclusions

What is political partisanship?

The tendency to consistently support the same political party over time, which can be understood through instrumental and expressive approaches

According to the instrumental approach to partisanship, why do people support a particular political party?

Because they evaluate which party best reflects their attitudes, values, policy preferences, or ideology, and may change support if the party no longer meets their expectations

According to the expressive approach to partisanship, why do people often evaluate political issues through a partisan lens?

Party identification functions as a social identity, leading people to favour their own party and evaluate political issues in ways that support their partisan ingroup

Why do researchers often use proxy measures such as party support, party vote, and warmth toward parties when studying partisanship?

Because traditional party identification measures developed in the United States can be difficult to adapt across different political contexts and systems

According to research on political partisanship, what is a potential consequence of strong partisan identification?

People may evaluate policies, politicians, and political issues through a partisan lens, favouring positions supported by their own party and opposing those supported by rival parties

How can individuals reduce the influence of partisanship on their evaluation of political information?

By critically evaluating evidence, considering alternative viewpoints, and judging information based on its merits rather than the party supporting it

Which approach to partisanship would best explain someone who continues to support the same political party because it forms part of their identity, even when they disagree with some of its policies?

The expressive approach, because party support reflects a social identity that shapes political judgments and loyalties

How can strong partisanship influence people's evaluations of political information and policies?

People tend to evaluate information and policies from their own party more favourably and may attribute more positive outcomes to their party while blaming opposing parties for negative outcomes

According to Zell et al. (2021), what is partisan attribution bias?

The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to one's own party and negative outcomes to the opposing party, with this bias being especially strong for negative events

Which two cognitive processes are commonly identified as cues that influence commitment to a political party?

Partisan motivated reasoning and heuristic shortcuts

What is partisan motivated reasoning?

The tendency to adjust one's attitudes and preferences to align with the positions of one's preferred political party in order to support and maintain a positive view of the ingroup

According to the heuristic shortcut explanation, why do people often follow their preferred party's position on political issues?

Because relying on party cues reduces the cognitive effort required to learn about complex or unfamiliar political issues

What is the difference between political cues and political frames in research on partisanship?

Cues indicate a political party's position on an issue, whereas frames provide arguments or ways of interpreting that issue

According to Cohen (2003), what effect did party cues have on participants' attitudes toward welfare policies?

Participants tended to support the welfare policy endorsed by their preferred party, even when that policy conflicted with their presumed prior preferences

Which explanation is most consistent with Cohen's (2003) finding that participants supported welfare policies endorsed by their preferred party, even when those policies conflicted with their prior preferences?

Either partisan motivated reasoning or heuristic shortcuts, depending on whether participants were motivated to align with their party identity or were relying on party cues to simplify complex political decisions

How might political parties have influenced New Zealanders' attitudes toward changing the national flag?

Party cues may have led people to support or oppose flag change based on the position of their preferred party, causing them to interpret the issue through a partisan lens rather than evaluating it independently

Why might party elite influence have differed between the New Zealand Flag Referendums and the Cannabis and Euthanasia Referendums?

Party elite influence was likely stronger for the flag referendum, where attitudes may have been less firmly established and more dependent on elite cues, whereas cannabis and euthanasia involved issues with stronger moral, personal, and value-based convictions that may have reduced reliance on party guidance

What is political polarisation?

The widening of differences between political groups in areas such as ideology, attitudes, and policy preferences, which can occur at both elite and mass levels

What is elite polarisation?

Differences in ideology, attitudes, or policy positions between politicians from different political parties

What is mass polarisation?

Differences in attitudes, beliefs, or policy preferences between supporters of different political parties within the general public

What is the difference between polarisation as a state and polarisation as a process?

A state refers to the level of differences between groups at a particular point in time, whereas a process refers to whether those differences are increasing or decreasing over time

Why has it been difficult for researchers to reach a firm consensus on whether political polarisation is increasing in the United States?

Polarisation can be measured in multiple ways, such as differences in attitudes between party supporters or the consistency of ideological positions across issues, which can lead to different conclusions about whether it is increasing

What is political sorting?

The process by which social identities (e.g., ideological, religious, or ethnic identities) become increasingly associated with support for particular political parties

According to research on political polarisation in the United States, in which areas do Republicans and Democrats appear to be growing further apart?

Across a range of political, social, and cultural attitudes, resulting in increasingly distinct partisan worldviews

Why are researchers interested in how political polarisation has changed over time?

Because examining changes over time helps determine whether political groups are becoming more distinct in their attitudes, identities, and preferences, rather than simply being different at a single point in time

How might increasing political polarisation help explain support for actions surrounding the United States Capitol attack?

Increasing polarisation can lead political opponents to be viewed as threats, making some individuals more willing to justify or support extreme actions on behalf of their political group

According to Iyengar et al. (2012), why is affective polarisation considered an important measure of political polarisation?

Because partisanship can function as a social identity, making people's feelings toward their own party and opposing parties a key indicator of political division

According to Iyengar et al. (2012), what primarily drove the increase in affective polarisation in the United States between 1975 and 2010?

Increasing hostility toward the opposing party, while feelings toward one's own party remained relatively stable

According to research on affective polarisation, what factors are associated with higher levels of affective polarisation?

Strong party identification and greater alignment between one's ideology/policy preferences and those of their party

According to research on affective polarisation, what are two major causes of affective polarisation?

Strong partisan identification and ideological/policy alignment with one's political party

Which of the following would be another way to measure affective polarisation besides using feeling thermometer ratings?

Assessing how much people trust, like, socialize with, or are willing to form close relationships with supporters of opposing political parties

Which of the following is a likely negative consequence of high levels of affective polarisation?

Increased hostility toward political opponents, reduced political cooperation, and greater social division between partisan groups

What is the general conclusion regarding political polarisation in Aotearoa New Zealand?

Some evidence suggests that affective polarisation has increased in Aotearoa New Zealand, although levels remain lower than those typically observed in the United States and conclusions depend on how polarisation is measured

According to research on political polarisation in Aotearoa New Zealand, on which types of issues are voters from different parties most likely to be divided?

Issues tied to ideology, values, and identity—such as social, cultural, and political issues—with some of the strongest increases in polarisation occurring on highly salient value-laden topics

Which of the following emerging political issues could plausibly contribute to increasing political polarisation in Aotearoa New Zealand?

Issues such as artificial intelligence regulation, climate change policy, co-governance, housing affordability, pandemic responses, and misinformation, which can become linked to competing values and political identities

According to Finkel et al. (2020), what are the three core features of political sectarianism?

Viewing supporters of the opposing party as fundamentally different (othering), disliking and distrusting them (aversion), and perceiving them as immoral (moralisation)

According to Finkel et al. (2020), which three factors are identified as key contributors to increasing political sectarianism?

Political sorting of social identities, increasingly partisan media environments, and greater ideological polarisation among political elites

How do Finkel et al. (2020) define political sectarianism?

A form of political division characterised by viewing opposing partisans as fundamentally different, disliking and distrusting them, and perceiving them as immoral

According to Finkel et al. (2020), what are the main consequences of political sectarianism?

Increased hostility and distrust between partisan groups, reduced willingness to cooperate or compromise, and a greater risk of anti-democratic attitudes and behaviours

According to research on political sectarianism, which approach is most likely to help reduce sectarianism?

Promoting cross-party contact, reducing partisan echo chambers, and highlighting shared identities and common goals across political groups

Which of the following factors identified by Finkel et al. (2020) is most likely to contribute to political polarisation in Aotearoa New Zealand?

Political sorting, partisan media consumption, and elite polarisation may all contribute to polarisation in New Zealand, although their effects may be weaker or operate differently than in the United States

According to Piketty (2020) and Saez (2019), what has happened to economic inequality over the past 40 years?

The gap between the haves and have-nots has increased steadily, reaching its highest levels since at least the Great Depression

What does the fact that the top 10% of earners in the United States receive over 50% of the nation's annual income illustrate?

A substantial concentration of income among a small proportion of the population, reflecting increasing economic inequality seen across many Western nations

According to Wilkinson and Pickett (2010) in The Spirit Level, what are some of the societal consequences of economic inequality?

Reduced trust, increased mental illness and drug use, and poorer physical wellbeing

According to Wilkinson and Pickett (2010), who is negatively affected by high levels of inequality?

Both poor and wealthy people, with even affluent individuals tending to experience worse outcomes in highly unequal societies than affluent individuals in more equal societies

How can events such as the COVID-19 pandemic contribute to greater social and economic inequality?

Pandemics often disproportionately affect already disadvantaged groups through job loss, financial insecurity, health risks, and reduced access to resources, thereby widening existing inequalities

Which argument is most consistent with research on the societal effects of inequality?

Although some inequality may provide incentives for achievement, high levels of inequality have been linked to negative outcomes such as reduced trust, poorer health, and threats to democratic functioning

Which of the following is an example of a domain of inequality other than economic inequality that may have important consequences for society?

Inequalities in areas such as education, health, political influence, housing access, digital access, or social status, which can shape life opportunities and societal outcomes in ways that may parallel economic inequality

What is economic precarity?

A state of financial insecurity and uncertainty in which people are vulnerable to economic hardship, such as job loss, reduced income, difficulty paying bills, or an inability to cope with unexpected expenses

According to Perry et al. (2021), why is it useful to examine economic precarity across groups defined by characteristics such as education, race, and age?

Because economic precarity is experienced unevenly across society, and comparing different groups helps identify which populations are most vulnerable to economic shocks and inequality

What implication do findings on economic precarity have for post-pandemic economic recovery efforts?

Recovery efforts should pay particular attention to groups that experienced the greatest economic vulnerability, using evidence on precarity to guide policies that promote equitable recovery and reduce existing inequalities

According to Wilkinson and Pickett (2010), which statement best summarises the effects of inequality on society?

Inequality is associated with a range of negative outcomes, including poorer mental health, higher mortality, worse physical health, and lower happiness across society

Which of the following best distinguishes individual-level and group-level outcomes when studying the effects of inequality?

Individual-level outcomes concern effects on people (e.g., wellbeing, health, trust, prejudice, or life satisfaction), whereas group-level outcomes concern effects on communities and societies (e.g., social cohesion, crime, political participation, or intergroup relations)

Besides relative deprivation, what other mechanisms might help explain why inequality has negative effects on individuals and society?

Reduced social trust, perceived unfairness, chronic stress, weaker social cohesion, lower social mobility, and feelings of status threat or exclusion

What is a potential societal implication of the finding that inequality can strengthen ingroup identification?

Stronger ingroup identification may increase solidarity and support within groups, but it can also heighten intergroup boundaries, increase conflict between groups, and contribute to social and political divisions