A-Level History, Paper 1 - Topic 1A (1917-29)

What type of political system did the US Constitution create and why is this important for presidential power?

The 1788 Constitution created a federal republic, meaning power is divided between:

• Federal government (Washington DC)

• 50 state governments

It also created a separation of powers between:

1. Legislature — Congress

2. Executive — President

3. Judiciary — Supreme Court

Importance:

• Prevents dictatorship

• Limits presidential power

• Explains why reforms (e.g. New Deal) faced Supreme Court opposition

• Explains why the Senate could block League of Nations membership (1920)

How does Congress limit presidential power?

Congress limits the President through:

• must approve laws

• controls government spending

• Senate must approve treaties

• can override veto with two-thirds majority

What are the key ideological differences between Republicans and Democrats in the early 20th century?

Republicans:

• pro-business

• low taxes

• minimal government

• isolationist

• opposed welfare expansion

Democrats:

• supported labour

• progressive taxation

• minimum wage support

• government role in welfare

• more reformist tradition

What was America’s economic position by 1917?

By 1917:

• largest industrial nation in the world

• produced 70% of world oil

• major producer of coal + steel

• Midwest produced 30% of world wheat

• produced 75% of world corn

What was Wilson’s “New Freedom Programme”?

A reform programme introducing:

• regulation of working hours

• progressive taxation

• limits on laissez-faire government

Why did the USA remain neutral until 1917?

Reasons:

1. Seen as European war

2. Public supported neutrality

3. Economic benefits from trade with Allies

4. Trade with Britain + France rose from $753m (1914) → $2.75bn (1916)

Why did the USA enter WWI in 1917?

Key reasons:

1. German unrestricted submarine warfare

2. Sinking of Lusitania (1915)
   – 1,200 deaths
   – 128 Americans

3. Zimmermann Telegram (Jan 1917) promising Mexico US territory

How significant was US involvement in WWI militarily?

• Selective Service Act registered 30 million men

• War cost $35.5bn

• US deaths: 112,432

Why did the USA reject the League of Nations in 1920?

• Senate controlled by Republicans

• feared loss of sovereignty

• return to isolationism mood

• Wilson’s illness weakened campaign support

Marked shift toward isolationism 1920s

Why did Republicans win the 1920 election?

• war weariness

• rejection of Wilson’s internationalism

• fear of socialism

• desire for “return to normalcy”

• economic instability leading to strikes and protests

What does “return to normalcy” mean?

• reduced government intervention (laissez-faire)

• end of wartime restrictions

• isolationism

• pro-business policies

What policies reflected Republican isolationism in the 1920s?

• Emergency Quota Act 1921 - Immigration limited to 357,000 per year and later reduced to 150,000 in 1924

• Fordney-McCumber Tariff 1922 - Raised import prices on foreign goods by 40%

How did immigration laws reflect nativism?

• Emergency Immigration Act (1921) - Limited immigration to 3% of the nationality already living in the US (1910 census) and favoured immigrants from Western Europe.

• Johnson-Reed Act (1924) - Reduced to a 2% quota and banned Japanese immigration

What caused the First Red Scare (1919–20)?

Causes:

• Russian Revolution 1917

• Communist Party USA formed in 1919

• Industrial unrest - 4 million workers on strike (1919)

• Bomb plots - 36 bombs discovered in April 1919 addressed to state officials

What were the Palmer Raids (1919-20)?

• Attorney General Mitchell Palmer created an intelligence division led by J Edgar Hoover

• Raids - Jan 1920 carried out in various work sectors, 6,000 arrests made.

• Targets: immigrants, union leaders, suspected radicals

Why did the Red Scare encourage immigration restrictions?

Many Americans believed communism was spreading via immigrants from:

• Eastern Europe

• Southern Europe

Result:

Emergency Immigration Act 1921

Johnson-Reed Act 1924

Why is the Sacco and Vanzetti case politically significant?

• Italian immigrants + suspected anarchists

• Charged with robbery + murder 1920

• Evidence was weak: 61 witnesses against, 107 witnesses supporting the alibi

• Still executed on 24 August 1927

• Led riots in protest in Paris, Geneva, Berlin and Hamburg

Shows:

• anti-immigrant prejudice

• Red Scare hysteria

• weak civil liberties protection

What were the key features of Coolidge’s economic policies?

• tax cuts from 40% → 20%

• abolished gift tax

• halved estate tax

• limited regulation

• encouraged credit expansion

What statistics demonstrate the strength of the 1920s economic boom?

• Production - industrial output ↑ 50% (1922–29)

• 23 million cars by 1929

• Radios - $852 million sold (1929)

• Unemployment never rose above 3.7%

• Inflation never rose above 1%

What weaknesses existed beneath the 1920s boom?

• 60% families earned under $2000/year

• Farm income fell from $22bn (1919) → $13bn (1928)

• 600,000 farmers bankrupt (1924)

• 70 million Americans living in poverty

Significance:

• Explains the severity of the Great Depression