Pathophysiology Exam 1

Define Idiopathic

When there is no known etiology (cause) for a disease

What is the difference between local, systemic, acute, chronic, and subacute symptomology

Local: Symptoms AT site of disease

Systemic: Unconfined to a specific site

Acute: Symptoms begin abruptly and last days to one

Chronic: Insidious (gradual) onsets which lasts longer than 6 months

Subacute: Symptoms which fall between acute and chronic

What is the difference between incidence, prevalence, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic?

Incidence: Number of new cases within a given time

Prevalence: Percentage of a population living with a particular disease

Endemic: Disease is predictable and stable

Epidemic: Rate considerably above endemic rate

Pandemic: Epidemic spreads across continents

Describe Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Preventions

Primary: Protecting people from developing a disease/illness

Secondary: Early detection of a disease through screening and early treatment

Tertiary: Rehabilitation after diagnosis

What are phospholipids and how are they configured?

They are the1st part of the lipid bilayer and have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

What are glycolipids

Second part of lipid bilayer, smaller than phospholipids

What are transmembrane proteins?

Proteins that pass through the entire membrane

What are integral proteins?

Specific types of transmembrane proteins which becomes part of the membrane

What are peripheral proteins?

They are proteins which do not pass through the entire membrane

What are genes?

Individual units of inheritance

What is the nucleus and what does it do?

Central structure which contains DNA

Where is the nucleolus and what does it do?

Within the nucleus and synthesizes RNA

What is RER?

Tubules containing ribosomes which make protein and lysosomal enzymes

What is SER?

Tubules which make lipids and steroid hormones

What is the Golgi apparatus?

Membranous structure that modifies proteins and lipids from endoplasmic reticulum

What are lysosomes?

Sacs around membranes which digest cellular debris

What are peroxisomes?

Sacs which neutralize free radicals

Rather than DNA, Mitrochondrion have…?

Their own mitochondrial DNA mtDNA

What are the main 2 functions of the mitochondrion?

Site of aerobic cellular respiration

Produces ATP

Define microtubules

Microtubules: Thin protein structures composed of tubulin

What is the difference between thin, intermediate, and thick microfilaments?

Thin: Comprise protein actin

Intermediate: Comprise filaments

Thick: Comprise protein myosin

Define diffusion

Movement of particles from high to low concentration

Define osmosis

Movement of water across semipermeable membrane (high to low)

Define facilitated diffusion

Movement of particles using transport proteins NOT ENERGY

What does glucose require to cross cell membrane?

Transport protein

Define primary active transport

Particles move across plasma membrane using ATP

Define secondary active transport

Uses energy from primary active transport

Define cotransport/symport

Substances are transported in the same direction

Define cotransport/antiport

Substances are transported in the opposite direction

Define endocytosis

Transport of large substances into cells

Define pinocytosis

Ingesting contents of vesicles using ATP

Define phagocytosis

Ingesting large particles by phagocytes

What are phagosomes?

A phagocyte with solid particle

Define exocytosis

Molecules are transported from inside to outside

What is the process of ingestion and secretion?

endocytosis → pinocytosis → phagocytosis → exocytosis

Bacterium enters the cell by endocytosis → forms a phagosome → phagosome fuses with a lysosome produced by golgi apparatus to digest the bacterium → waste exits the cell through exocytosis.

Aerobic vs Anaerobic respiration and units produced

Aerobic produces ATP with oxygen PRODUCES 30-32 ATP per glucose molecules

Anaerobic produces ATP without oxygen PRODUCES 2 ATP per glucose molecules

What are the proteins requiring for cell functions?

Products of the cell which are produced by genes in response to cellular needs

What is proteolytic enxyme activity?

Process which enzymes (proteases) break down proteins into smaller peptides

Why does impaired proteolytic enzyme activity occur and what does it cause?

It is a result of genetic mutation which can cause diabetes, cataracts, MS, and Duschenne muscular dystrophy.

What is the purpose of the feedback mechanism?

To regulate gene activation and prevent cell damage caused by over or underproduction

What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis occurrence location?

Mitosis- occurs in somatic cells
Meiosis- occurs ONLY in the gametes

What are ligands

Signaling molecules which bind to receptors

Define signal transduction

The process of ligands binding to receptors

Define binding affinity

The strength of binding ability

Define paracrine signaling

When ligand binding results in signal transduction with a local rapid effect (the result of signal transduction)

Define endocrine signaling

A wider range of impact caused by signal transduction

What is the difference between proliferation and differentiation

Proliferation: Increase in cell number

Differentiation: Changes in physical and functional properties of cells

What is the difference between atrophy and hypertrophy

Atrophy: Decrease in cell size

Hypertrophy: Increase in cell size

Define ischemia what can it cause

Decreased oxygen supply to cells which can cause atrophy

What is disuse atrophy?

Loss of muscle mass and strength which occurs when muscles aren’t being used

What is denervation atrophy?

Shrinking of muscles which is caused by loss of nerve supply

How does endocrine stimulation influence atrophy

During loss of endocrine stimulation (such as menopause), muscles in the body commonly shrink

How does inadequate nutrition cause muscle atrophy?

When someone’s diet is poor or inadequate, their muscles may shrink

What is spinal muscular atrophy?

An atrophic condition caused by impaired neural innervation to muscle tissue

What is adenoid hypertrophy

Hypertrophy of adenoid tissue which is caused by enlargement of lymphoepithelial adenoid tissue in back of nasal area which causes obstruction

What is Hyperplasia WITH examples

Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number

Examples include:

Menstruation

High altitudes which cause increased RBC to maximize hemoglobin (increased workload causes adaptation)

Puberty

Pregnancy

What is Metaplasia WITH examples

Metaplasia: Changing of one cell type to another

GERD - Esophagus is damaged by stomach acid which causes squamous epithelium cells to glandular cells

Smokers - Bronchial tubes of lungs are exposed to smoke which causes squamous metaplasia where columnar cells turn to squamous cells to try to survive the toxins

Dysplasia

Dysplasia: Deranged cell growth via change in cell size, shape, etc

What is Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD)

A condition which stressors prompt cellular alterations which learn to chronic, irreversible tissue changes

Define apoptosis

Programed cell death caused by genetic signal in order to replace old cells with new ones

Define syndactyly

Fusion or incomplete separation of digit soft tissue

What is the difference between endogenous and exogenous WITH examples

Endogenous; Toxins produced within the body system (such as allergies)

Exogenous: From external environment (alcohol causing cirrosis)

Define reactive oxygen species (ROS)

Toxi oxygen molecules or radicals which are formed by the reaction between oxygen and water during mitrochondrial respiration

What is a free radical injury

Cellular damage caused by ROS

What is a cerebral atrophy?

The reduction in size of the cells of the cerebrum of the brain

What nutritional lack is associated with increased brain atrophy?

Lack of b vitamins

What are examples of mechanical and toxin related injury which causes cerebral atrophy?

A head injury

Encephalitis

What is Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Disease? What does it cause?

A diseases caused by lack of perfusion to the brain; It can cause decreased psychomotor speed, executive control, and cognitive function

Which brain regions are associated with atrophy in Alzheimer’s patients? What impacts does it have?

The hippocampus and cerebral cortex; Impairment of memory and comprehension

What causes many movement disorders?

Neuronal atrophy in the basal ganglia

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

Dopamine production

Why is dopamine important?

It’s needed for motor function

What is the most common cause of sudden unexpected cardiac death in young individuals?

Primary cardiac hyper trophy

What is the most common cause of secondary cardiac hypertrophy?

increased blood pressure

Why does increased blood pressure lead to cardiac hypertrophy?

It created additional workload for the ventricles to pump blood

What structural change is associated with cardiac hypertrophy? How does it impact the heart?

Disorganization of myocardial cell pattern and arrangement. It impairs cardiac muscle contraction

Why can cardiac hypertrophy be deadly?

The heart already has an increased workload, and high blood pressure further increases strain, raising the risk of death.

The right ventricle can cause _______ which leads to _________.

increased pulmonary circulation pressure ; hypertrophy

The left ventricle can cause _______ which leads to _________.

Increased systemic circulation pressure ; hypertrophy

Why must the left ventricle pump harder in systemic hypertension?

Because of increased outflow pressure from the aorta or a stiff aortic valve.

What are common symptoms of pump failure in cardiac hypertrophy?

Shortness of breath, angina, and syncope.

What is angina?

Chest pain

What is syncope?

Temporary loss of consciousness

Which medications are considered the drugs of choice for treating left ventricular muscle mass?

Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs).

Which medications may also be used after ARBs for cardiac hypertrophy treatment?

Calcium channel blockers and ACE inhibitors.

What does ACE stand for in ACE inhibitors?

Angiotensin-converting enzyme.

Besides medications, what procedures can treat cardiac hypertrophy?

Surgery or alcohol injection into overly thickened areas of the heart.

How does alcohol injection help treat cardiac hypertrophy?

It reduces the thickness of overgrown heart muscle areas.

What is a cardiac hypertrophy?

Disease of the cardiac muscle which results from excessive workload and functional demand

What is familal cardiac hypertrophy?

Another form of cardiac hypertrophy which is genetic

What musculoskeletal conditions may result from overgrowth of bone, cartilage, and soft tissue?

Arthritis and carpal tunnel syndrome

What can hyperplasia of the sinuses and vocal cords cause?

A deepened voice and upper airway obstruction

What causes excessive sweating and skin odor in hyperplasia-related conditions?

Granular hyperplasia.

How can the skin change with hyperplasia?

The skin may become thick, oily, and develop skin tags.

What reproductive effects can occur in acromegaly-related hyperplasia?

Menstrual disorders in women and sexual dysfunction in men.

Which organs may enlarge due to hyperplasia?

The liver, spleen, kidneys, and heart.

What serious health consequences can result from organ enlargement in hyperplasia?

Sleep apnea, type 2 diabetes, colon cancer, and cardiovascular disease.

What cardiovascular tissue changes can occur in acromegaly?

Both hyperplastic and hypertrophic changes.

What can untreated hyperplastic cardiac changes in acromegaly lead to?

Cardiac hypertrophy and possibly heart failure.

How can cardiac changes caused by acromegaly be reversed?

By suppressing growth hormone and IGF-1.