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What is science?

A systematic way of understanding the world using observation, evidence, testing, and reasoning.

What is the scientific method?

A process involving observation, hypothesis formation, data collection, testing, and interpretation to explain phenomena.

What is the difference between truth and fact?

Facts are evidence-based and verifiable; truth can be subjective, culturally influenced, or belief-based.

What is anthropology?

The holistic study of humanity across time and space, integrating biological, cultural, linguistic, and archaeological perspectives.

What does 'holistic' mean in anthropology?

Studying humans as interconnected biological, cultural, social, and historical beings rather than isolating one aspect.

What are the four subfields of anthropology?

1. Archaeology 2. Biological Anthropology 3. Linguistic Anthropology 4. Cultural (Social) Anthropology

What is archaeology?

The study of past human societies through material remains.

What is biological anthropology?

The study of human evolution, genetics, primates, and biological variation.

What is linguistic anthropology?

The study of language, communication, and how language shapes culture.

What is cultural (social) anthropology?

The study of living societies, beliefs, practices, and social systems.

What is equifinality?

The principle that different processes can produce the same archaeological outcome.

What time period does archaeology study?

From the earliest hominin tool use (Paleolithic) to recent historical periods.

What are the oldest archaeological contexts?

Paleolithic contexts involving stone tools and early hominins.

What is a synchronic view?

Studying a society at one point in time.

What is a diachronic view?

Studying change in a society over time.

What are major challenges in archaeology?

Preservation issues, incomplete data, site destruction, looting, and interpretation bias.

Why do archaeologists study the past?

To understand human behavior, cultural change, identity, and long-term human-environment relationships.

What kinds of questions does archaeology ask?

How societies lived, adapted, organized, changed, and interacted.

Who funds or conducts archaeology?

Universities, governments, museums, private firms, and CRM organizations.

What is private archaeology?

Archaeology conducted by private firms, often tied to development projects.

What is public archaeology?

Archaeology focused on public engagement, education, and heritage access.

What is CRM?

Archaeology conducted to comply with laws protecting cultural resources during development.

What are different types of archaeology?

Academic, CRM, public, historical, prehistoric, underwater, and more.

How does North American archaeology differ?

Strong focus on CRM and Indigenous heritage; Europe/Asia emphasize long-term national histories.

What are geographic, temporal, and cultural specializations?

Archaeologists focus on specific regions, time periods, or cultural groups.

What is archaeometry?

The application of scientific techniques (e.g., chemistry, physics) to analyze archaeological materials.

What are the goals of archaeology?

To document, interpret, and preserve evidence of the human past responsibly.

Why is excavation destructive?

Once a site is excavated, it can never be reconstructed exactly as it was.

What is preservation?

Protecting archaeological materials from damage.

What is consolidation?

Stabilizing fragile materials after excavation.

What is taphonomy?

The study of processes that affect materials from deposition to discovery.

What are natural formation processes?

Environmental forces affecting sites including weathering, decay, and erosion.

What are cultural formation processes?

Human actions affecting sites including modern development, looting, and intentional erasure.

What conditions aid preservation?

Cold, dry, or oxygen-poor environments.

What is culture-history?

A framework focusing on classification and chronology of cultures.

What is ethnohistory?

Using historical documents and Indigenous accounts to study the past.

Who are stakeholders in the past?

Descendant communities, governments, scholars, and the public.

Who owns the past?

A contested issue involving legal, ethical, and cultural claims.

What is pseudoarchaeology?

Claims about the past that lack scientific evidence.

Why is pseudoarchaeology harmful?

It spreads misinformation and often erases Indigenous histories.

What is the American Antiquities Act (1906)?

First U.S. law protecting archaeological sites on federal land.

What is NAGPRA (1990)?

A law requiring the return of Native American human remains and sacred objects to descendant communities.

What is stasis?

The belief that the world has remained unchanged since creation.

Who proposed the young Earth theory?

Bishop James Ussher, dating creation to 4004 BCE.

What is antiquarianism?

The collection and study of ancient objects without systematic context.

What was the Enlightenment?

An intellectual movement emphasizing reason, observation, and evidence.

Why was geology important to archaeology?

It introduced deep time and stratigraphy.

Who was Buffon?

A naturalist who argued for an old Earth and biological change.

What is uniformitarianism?

The idea that geological processes today operated the same in the past.

Who proposed uniformitarianism?

James Hutton; later expanded by Charles Lyell.

What is stratigraphy?

The study of layered deposits to establish relative chronology.

Who proposed natural selection?

Charles Darwin.

How did evolution affect archaeology?

It introduced ideas of long-term change and human origins.

What is unilineal cultural evolution?

The idea that all societies progress through the same stages.

What are the three stages?

Savagery → Barbarism → Civilization.

What is ethnocentrism?

Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own.

How did nationalism affect archaeology?

Archaeology was used to build national identities and unified histories.

What is the culture-historical approach?

Focuses on typologies, classification, and diffusion.

What are typologies?

Systems for grouping artifacts by shared characteristics.

What is diffusion?

The spread of ideas, technology, or styles between cultures.

What is hyper-diffusionism?

The belief that most cultural innovations came from a single source.

Who was Franz Boas?

Founder of cultural particularism; rejected unilineal evolution.

What is functionalism?

Views culture as a system where parts serve functions.

What is processual archaeology?

A scientific, hypothesis-driven approach focusing on systems and processes.

What is postprocessual archaeology?

Emphasizes meaning, symbolism, agency, and interpretation.

What is feminist archaeology?

Challenges male bias and highlights gender roles.

What is Black feminist archaeology?

Examines race, gender, power, and inequality in the past.

What is agency?

The ability of individuals to act and influence society.

What is phenomenology?

Studying how people experienced landscapes and spaces.

What is an emic perspective?

Insider viewpoint.

What is an etic perspective?

Outsider, analytical viewpoint.

Who is Lewis Binford?

Leader of processual archaeology.

Who is Ian Hodder?

Leader of postprocessual archaeology.

Who is Michael Schiffer?

Formation process theory.

What is N-transform?

Natural transformations.

What is C-transform?

Cultural transformations.

What is primary context?

Artifacts found where they were originally used.

What is secondary context?

Artifacts moved from original location.

What is a research question?

A focused question guiding archaeological investigation.

What is categorical data?

Data grouped into categories.

What is nominal data?

Categories with no order.

What is ordinal data?

Ordered categories.

What is continuous data?

Measured on a scale.

What is the difference between interval and ratio data?

Ratio has a true zero; interval does not.

Why is research design important?

It ensures systematic, unbiased data collection.

What is probabilistic sampling?

Every unit has a known chance of selection.

What are examples of probabilistic sampling?

Random, systematic, stratified, adaptive.

What is non-probabilistic sampling?

Selection based on judgment or convenience.

What is an artifact?

An object made or modified by humans.

What is an ecofact?

Natural remains associated with human activity.

What is a feature?

Non-movable human-made structures (e.g., hearths).

What is matrix?

The surrounding soil or sediment.

What is provenience?

Exact location where an artifact is found.

What is association?

Relationship between artifacts found together.