Izabella Lenington - Culture and Behavior Flashcards

influence of culture on one behavior or cognition

• Culture refers to the products of socialisation within any organised group, society or nation and involves a set of rules, norms and customs that are agreed by the members of that group

• Culture is active rather than passive; each individual contributes to the culture in which they were born – and to the cultures they encounter throughout their life

• Culture is created by people and in turn influences the development of people i.e. it is a bi-directional process/phenomenon

• Culture is not static: it is subject to changes wrought by time, by advancing technologies, by social change, by geographical change

• Deep culture refers to the attitudes, beliefs and values that underpin daily life and habits within that culture; it may not be immediately obvious as it is inherent in cultural norms and behaviours which are familiar to those within the culture

  • Examples of deep culture include belief in life after death; that cows are sacred; that everyone has the right to free speech

• Surface culture is the manifestation of deep culture i.e. observable and tangible behaviours, customs and rituals

  • Examples of surface culture include eating food with chopsticks; performing specific dances at festivals; living in houses on stilts

• Conformity refers to the behaviour of an individual when faced with (usually) a majority (minority influence can also produce conformity but it is much less usual than majority influence)

• Conformity is a form of social influence which is different to obedience in that it involves a kind of group consensus as to how to behave whereas obedience is a behaviour which stems from following the orders of a legitimate authority e.g. teacher, boss, doctor, military commander, police etc.

• Normative social influence occurs when people conform to group social norms when they want to be included in the group, to feel that they belong (even if at times they secretly do not agree with the group’s behaviour)

• Informational social influence occurs when people conform to group social norms because they believe that the group is better informed than they are i.e. they don’t know what to do so they just follow what the majority of other people are doing

• It could be argued that conformity is a positive force as it helps people to agree; to work together and to form cohesive attitudes, beliefs and behaviours e.g. in running a workforce, in making decisions in a meeting, in queuing up for a train or in a shop, in knowing when to stay quiet and when to speak out

• It could be argued that conformity is a negative force as it prevents people from acting according to their innermost beliefs; it can result in a loss of identity as the group is surrendered to; it can result in tragedy

cultural dimensions in behavior

• Cultural dimensions: A continuum of values onto which members of different cultures can generally be grouped; they describe broad patterns of differences between cultures, rather than individual differences.

• Between 1971 and 1973 Geert Hofstede, a professor from Maastricht University conducted a huge, global survey of IBM employees focused on cultural attitudes and behaviours

• The survey was in the form of a questionnaire to which over 60,000 people from over 50 countries responded

• Hofstede came to the conclusion that cultural dimensions could be used universally to describe the norms for behaviour within cultures.

• Power distance index: the extent to which a culture respects authority and status.

• Individualism vs. collectivism: the degree to which people are integrated into groups. Sometimes referred to as an “I” vs. a “we” orientation.

• Uncertainty avoidance index: a society’s tolerance for ambiguity.  Tolerance for ambiguity means less strict rules in society and an openness to change.

• Masculinity vs. femininity: Masculine societies are defined by a focus on achievement, competition, and wealth; feminine societies focus on cooperation, relationships, and quality of life.

• A fifth cultural dimension was added – Long-term orientation, which is the extent to which a culture values behaviours which contribute to long-term achievements e.g. persistence, perseverance as opposed to short-term gains

• The dimensions are revised frequently i.e. in 2010, Indulgence vs. restraint was added to describe the extent to which a culture enjoys pleasurable experiences as opposed to denying pleasures and delaying gratification.

• Individualism-collectivism: I-C is one of Hofstede's cultural dimensions.  Individualistic cultures are those that stress the needs of the individual over the needs of the group as a whole. Collectivism emphasizes the importance of the group and social cooperation.

enculturation of one behavior

• Enculturation: The processes, beginning in early childhood, by which particular cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns are adopted by the members of society.

• Cultural norms: Sets of societal expectations that influence behavior. Norms tell us what kinds of behavior are appropriate/accepted or inappropriate.

• Direct tuition: Teaching young children how to behave by reinforcing "appropriate" behaviors and by punishing or otherwise discouraging "inappropriate" behaviors.

• Participatory learning: Actively taking part in the learning process and applying learning from other situations.

• Social cognitive theory: A theory that argues that we learn behavior from models in our society through observational learning and vicarious reinforcement.

• Vertical transmission: The passing down of cultural norms from one generation to another.

• Enculturation is a type of socialisation: it is the process by which an individual absorbs and learns the norms, traditions, rituals, attitudes and practices of the culture into which they are born and raised (i.e. as opposed to acculturation)

• Enculturation happens almost at an unconscious level i.e. we are not fully aware that we are being enculturated, it is simply part and parcel of growing up within a specific culture

• People may begin to question or challenge aspects of their enculturation as they grow up, but the effects of enculturation are usually embedded in our psyche and are not easily shifted i.e. they may be an intrinsic part of who we are

• Enculturation is transmitted vertically e.g. by parents (the most significant figures in enculturation)

• Enculturation is also transmitted horizontally e.g. by siblings, friends

• Enculturation may also occur via oblique transmission e.g. by other adults, celebrities, media and social organisations

• Enculturation is adaptive as it helps people to survive and thrive within their culture, preserving cultural practices from one generation to the next

• As enculturation is a socialisation process it affects and influences all aspects of a person’s life, for example the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours involved in parenting

• Parents generally try to raise their children using the best practices and traditions that they themselves have experienced and these are largely dependent on the culture in which they have been raised

• One aspect of parenting that is affected by enculturation is the attitude of parents towards gender roles i.e. the ways in which girls and boys should each behave; what is ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’ depending on whether the child is a boy or a girl

• Research tends to suggest that parents from collectivist cultures are more rigid and inflexible in their attitudes towards gendered behaviour, upholding traditional views of gender roles as compared to more the progressive, liberal attitudes of individualistic cultures

acculturation

• Acculturation: The psychological and behavioral adjustments that occur within individuals who come into contact with others from different cultural backgrounds.

• Acculturative stress: The anxiety that one may feel when attempting to assimilate into a new culture.

• Assimilation: the process in which a minority group or culture adopts the values, behaviors, and beliefs of the majority group.

• Integration: The process in which an individual assumes the beliefs, values, and behaviors of another culture without losing the characteristics of his or her own culture.

• Marginalization: A failure to acculturate when it is not really possible to maintain one’s original culture, but because of exclusion or discrimination, it is not possible to assimilate into the new culture.

• Protective factors: Conditions or attributes in individuals, families, communities, or the larger society that help people deal more effectively with stressful events.

• Separation: When migrants maintain their own culture and minimize contact with the new culture.

• Acculturation is the process by which people adapt to a new and different culture to the one in which they have been born and raised (i.e. the opposite to enculturation).

• Acculturation occurs when an individual chooses or is forced (i.e. because of war, famine or economic need) to move to and live in another country/culture.

• Acculturation involves an individual acclimatising to the dominant culture into which they have moved from their original culture e.g. a student born and raised in Inner London moves to Wales for university and has to learn the customs and way of life in Wales; a person who has moved from the UK to Brazil in South America will have to acclimatise to the customs, norms, systems and procedures of the new cultural environment in Brazil.

• culture affects the migrant and they in turn affect the dominant culture e.g. by introducing new language, foods, religion, art, music etc.

• As acculturation is an acclimatisation process it affects and influences all aspects of a person’s life, for example the attitudes, beliefs and behaviours involved in parenting.

• Parents generally try to raise their children using the best practices and traditions that they themselves have experienced and these are largely dependent on the culture in which they have been raised – which can counter those of the dominant culture.

• One aspect of parenting that is affected by acculturation is the attitude of parents towards ethnic identity i.e. the ways in which people view themselves in terms of their culture.

• Research tends to suggest that the children of rst-generation parents (i.e. the first to move to the new country) are less traditional in their behaviours and attitudes than their parents which is probably due to the influence of the dominant culture into which they have been born.

• It may be difficult for first-generation non-native parents to reconcile the fact that their children may not agree with or follow the traditions, beliefs and norms of their original culture. [e.g. because dressing, socialising and holding attitudes that are more in line with the dominant culture.]

• Acculturation is the process by which people adapt to a new and different culture to the one in which they have been born and raised (i.e. the opposite to enculturation)

• Acculturative stress occurs when non-natives settling into a new country and that the dominant culture (i.e. the culture into which they have moved) is one which causes them difficulties and which may be misaligned with their own cultural values, norms, beliefs, customs and behaviours. 

  • For example, in other countries where the pace of life is slower, people moving from the UK would find a restricted amount of 24/7 access to shops and dining, have to get used to different meal times (Mediterranean cultures have siestas during the day so tend to have later dinner times, sometimes not sitting for a meal until 8−9 pm onwards), or recognise that some religious holidays may be observed more often and with more significance

• Other examples of acculturative stress might occur if non-natives cannot speak the language of the dominant culture; when they are trying to find suitable employment and/or education; searching for ingredients to cook dishes from their original culture.

• Berry (2008) suggested a theory of acculturation based on four strategies that individuals use when acculturating to the dominant culture

• He claimed that acculturation is a bi-directional process, with both the original culture and the dominant culture being affected by it

assimilation

• ASSIMILATION When individuals do not wish to maintain their own, original culture and instead seek daily interactions with people from the dominant culture

• For this question, you should first explain the meaning of the term "assimilation." Be careful to explain its link to acculturation and not to schema processing.

• Studies like Lueck and Wilson could be used. Their study looks at the levels of acculturative stress in Asian Americans who are either integrated or assimilated.

• Remember that the research methods are: case studies, experiments, observations, interviews, correlational studies, and questionnaires/surveys.

• A description of the chosen research method

• An explanation of how the research method produces knowledge related to psychology

• Experiment: A research method in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable under controlled conditions on participants who have been randomly allocated to conditions.

• Quasi-experiment: The researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable, but participants are not randomly allocated to conditions; they are assigned to conditions based on pre-existing traits.

• Natural experiment: The researcher uses a pre-test /post-test design but does not manipulate the independent variable. The IV is naturally occurring. Participants are also not randomly allocated to groups.

• Naturalistic observation: A naturalistic observation does not manipulate an independent variable, but observes the behavior of a participant in their natural environment. The observation may be overt - where the participants are aware they are being observed - or covert.

ethical considerations in the study of the influence of culture on behavior and/or cognition

• Deception by omission: When the researchers do not explain all the details of a study to avoid demand characteristics. The participants are not told anything that is untrue, but the lack of detail means that they are not giving informed consent.

• Deception by commission: When the researchers give incorrect information to the participants about the study. This could include giving them a false aim of the study.

• Informed consent: Participants agree to be part of a study after being told what the study is about, what the possible outcomes of the study are, and what their rights are as a participant.

• Undue stress or harm: "Undue stress" refers to any stress that would be more than a participant would encounter in everyday life. Simple discomfort or embarrassment is not "undue stress or harm."

• Ethical studies on culture’s influence on behavior and cognition must prevent cultural stereotyping, ensure informed consent that respects local customs, and protect participants from psychological harm or social marginalization.

• Cultural Stereotyping and Misrepresentation: Research often risks promoting oversimplified or harmful stereotypes, particularly when applying Western-centric norms to non-Western cultures.

• Informed Consent in Diverse Contexts: The Western model of individual, written informed consent may not align with collectivist cultures, where community leaders or family heads might make collective decisions.

• Protection from Harm and Stigmatization: Research on acculturation or minority groups can lead to stigmatization, political consequences for participants (e.g., immigrants), or psychological distress.

• Researcher Bias and Ethnocentrism: Researchers may unconsciously apply their own cultural lens to interpret the behavior of others, creating invalid results.

• Confidentiality and Data Management: Protecting the identity of participants is crucial, especially in smaller, closely-knit communities where individual data could easily be traced.

research methods in the study of the influence of culture on behavior and/or cognition

• the research methods are: case studies, experiments, observations, interviews, and questionnaires/surveys.

• A description of the chosen research method

• An explanation of how the research method produces knowledge related to psychology

• Natural experiment: The researcher uses a pre-test /post-test design but does not manipulate the independent variable.  The IV is naturally occurring. Participants are also not randomly allocated to groups.

• Correlational studiescan suggest that a relationship exists between variables. However, it CANNOT prove that one variable causes a change in another. If there are no associations between the variables tested, then there are no causal connections between them.

• Cross-Cultural Studies (Quasi-Experiments): Compare behaviors across different cultures to identify variations. For example, comparing memory processes between Western and non-Western societies or, as noted in Quizlet, comparing bicultural identities and bilingualism on psychological adjustment.

• Emic Approach: Focuses on a single culture to understand behaviors from within, often using ethnographic observation or interviews.

• Etic Approach: Searches for universal behaviors or generalities across multiple cultures.

• Experiments (Field or Lab): Researchers manipulate variables to observe behavioral changes. For instance, testing conformity across different cultural dimensions (individualism vs. collectivism).

• Surveys/Questionnaires: Used to measure cultural attitudes, values, and, as discussed in Quizlet, to measure how personal