Semester 2 - Intro to Sustainability

Ocean Acidification

• reduction in ocean pH, from more CO2 in atmosphere - ocean absorbing more = more acidic

• Loss of coral reefs - threatened by dual stressors (ocean warming + acidification) - looking at climate-resistant corals

El Nino

• Eastern Pacific heats up more than normal - creating unusually hot and stormy weather

• declared when water warms up by half a degree C high than long term average

La Nina

• water cools down more than usual in parts of Pacific Ocean (btwn S. America & Asutralia)

• Sea surface drop 3-5 C

• leads to cooler/drier weather

Global Consequences of warmer seas

• LOSS OF SPP - more frequent/intense marine heatwaves = mass mortality of sea life (esp coral reefs)

• MORE EXTREME WEATHER - increased heat in upper ocean surface = hurricanes/cyclones pick up more energy

• SEA LEVEL RISE = warmer waters take up more space (thermal expansion) —> accelerate melting of glaciers from Greenland & Antarctica

• LESS ABILITY TO ABSORB CO2 = less CO2 uptake means more accumulation in atmosphere means further warming

*at the moment oceans take up ¼ GHG emissions

Changes in fish stocks

• 70% spp shifting ranges/moving to shallower or deeper waters bc of changing water temps

• Increase in fish spp found in higher latitudes (global waters warm)

**not always about spp loss, also about spp moving location —> due to warmer seas

• keeping up with change

• new opportunities presented in marine/fishing communities

Climate change impact on seafood industry

• ocean acidification causing 14-28% fishery Net Present Value (NPV) by 2100

• Northern England & Scotland particularly at risk — high stock sensitivity & low catch diversity

Dead Zones

• develop when fertilizers and nutrients (from farmland) drain into bodies of water — creating algae bloom that dies and decomposes

• decomposition depletes waters of oxygen which suffocates surrounding spp

• nothing can survive in dead zones — CO2 is so low = suffocation

• most hypoxic enviro’s = Denmark, English Channel, UK, USA East coast, Gulf of Mexico, Japan

Plastic Pollution

• >171 trillion plastic pieces floating in ocean — from 16 trillion in 2005

• microplastics consumed by plankton (bottom of food chain)

• 8 million metric tons of plastic/year —> to ocean

Plastic Pollution relief

• average litter dropping 100m/year in UK

• Scotland banning plastic cotton bud sticks 2019

Solution-oriented Science — new model for ocean science

• multidisciplinary (natural science + social science + humanities)

• codesign with local communities, indigenous pop’s, policymakers, NGOs

• must address power imbalance and inequity of science

Bycatch

the unwanted fish and other marine creatures trapped by commercial fishing nets during fishing for a different spp

• caught but not wanted - causing threat esp when spp are endangered

Overfishing

• too many people & larger boats chasing too few fish

• overfished stocks tripled in past 50 years

• 1/3 world’s fisheries being pushed beyond biological limits

• Worm et al (2006) estimate we will run out of commercial fish stocks by 2048 (contested)

Newfoundland cod industry

• 1992 collapse of Newfoundland cod industry symbolic to end of fishing lifestyle

• bc of trawling - regulations came too late despite small-scale fishers’ warnings

• 40,000 jobs lost

• Canada govt suspended all cod fishing

User groups within fisheries

small scale (artisanal fishers) - inshore fishing w/ low-tech gears

• impacts of fishing often fall onto small scale even though they are least to blame

• least resilience/capable of coping

commercial mechanized sector - trawlers

• less sustainable

Dependency in fisheries

• 90% fisheries small scale - 75% UK fleet <10m boats

• important protein source - many communities rely

• fishers often lack education

• lack of livelihood alternatives (family biz, rural infrastructure)

Vulnerability in fisheries

• poor health and accidents (death at sea)

• uncertain catches/incomes

• price fluctuation/exploitation by middle men

• climate change/extreme weather conditions

Global importance of fishing

• 38 million jobs DIRECT, 100 million jobs in total

• primary econ activity in low-income/coastal regions

• Vit A, Omega 3

Conflict btwn economics/sustainability - KENYA

• conflict between marine conservation and small scale fishers

• destructive gear/juvenile fish seine bans, marine parks

• illegal fishing as response

Fisheries vs Tourism

• competition of coastal space/privatization of beaches that fishers can’t access

• tourism = $$. Some fishers adapt to benefit but many lose out

Illegal fishing

• driving out all fish spp

• further threatening fish populations, fishing industry, future food security

Pirate fishing - WEST AFRICA

• conflict btwn internal fishery players and “outsiders”, foreign fleets

• EU allowed into waters (Brussels 2006) - sparked “How Africa is Feeding Europe”, “Stolen Fish”

• 1.5 billion GBP fish stolen every year by unlicensed vessels

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

• protected area that is recognized, dedicated, and managed to achieve long term conservation & ecosystem services

• actively managed by a group/organization for conservation outcome

• some may be species designated, serve as habitat, nursing/feeding grounds, etc

Variation in MPAs

• MPAs in many shapes/sizes

• some strict only allowing research, some allowing sustainable use of natural resources

• hard to determine what activities are “damaging”, ex Kayakers disturbing Northumberland seals

Large MPAs

World’s largest MPA in Antarctica

• 600,000 sq miles protected from commercial fishing

• home to Adelie penguins, aptrels, minke whales

Europe’s largest MPA - deep sea off Western Isles of Scotland

• 39,000 sq miles

• protecting habitats on seamounts (extinct volcanoes)

MPA Networks

• collection of MPAs operating synergistically

• designed for objectives that single reserve cannot achieve

Conference of the Parties (COP)

• governing body of int’l convention

• made of member state reps, accredited observers

• Conventions with COP: Convention on Biological Diversity (Hyderabad COP 11), UN Biodiversity (Montreal COP 15), Ramsar Convention (1971)

Wetlands

• area of land covered/saturated with water

• defined by hydrophytes

• Protect shorelines from storm/sea surges (mangroves, seagrass)

• capture and store carbon

• protection effort from Ramsar Convention (1971)

• most threatened ecosystem

Seagrass Meadows

• potential to sequester and store “blue carbon” — huge amounts of carbon dissolved in seas

• if undisturbed, can store carbon in seafloor — concerns with trawling —> massive C release

Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) 2010

Negotiated in Nagoya JP - govt’s pledged to:

• cut habitat loss by 1/2

• expand nature reserves to 17% of global land area by 2020

COP 15 & GBF

Montreal Dec 2022 - agreed on Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF):

• supports SDGs to live in harmony with nature by 2050

• 30 × 30 agreement

• ecologically representative - rep’ing all spp and needs

• pushes effective mgmt, not just designation

• respecting rights of indigenous and local communities

Challenges in COP 15

• language can be hard to define: ex “sustainable use” - what is sustainable/, “equitably governed” hard to uphold

• “respecting rights of indigenous peoples and local communities” - conflict in Biosphere reserve sustainability and impacts on livelihoods/women involvement

• MPA can = less fishing, women struggle disproportionately

Special Protection Areas (SPAs)

• MPA type in the UK

• areas on land/sea which protect vulnerable bird spp in the UK

SACs - Special Areas of Conservation

• MPA type in UK

• protect habitats and spp (esp sensitive ones) listed on Annex I and Annex II of European Habitats Directive

• 116 SACs w/ marine components covering 14% of UK waters

MCZs - Marine Conservation Zones

• MPA type in UK

• designated in England, Wales, Northern Ireland waters

• protect nationally important habitats/spp in deeper waters eg coral reefs

Life Cycle Assessment

measuring/quantifying environmental impact of a product, process, service

“Cradle to grave”
assessing raw material > manufacturing > distribution > use > disposal

• enables solutions based on which parts of process are most impactful - identifying “hotspots”

LCA Process

1. Goal and scope

2. Inventory Analysis (Life Cycle Inventory, LCI)

3. Impact Assessment

Linear vs Circular Economy

Linear: extract resources > make them into products > used > disposed after lifetime > waste

• current predominant structure

Circular: components of products are reused

• increasingly important as resources diminish (fossil fuels, minerals)

Material Flow

• lots of opportunity for material to be recovered

• finite resources: currently not designed to be repaired

LCA Limitations

• SCOPE - what you include in analysis, ie leaving things out

• QUALITY OF DATA - need high to prevent false estimates

• SPECIFICIY - contingent to local context process/product is in

• COST - expensive

Energy Demand

• before 1850 - just biomass (wood)

• post 1850 - coal, oil, natural gas —> FF cheap and supporting growing pop.

CO2 emissions

• From fossil fuels (mostly) also land-use change

• Essential to decarbonize

• Current CO2 conc = 430.02 ppm. Temp currently catching up

• Emissions from: Electricity/heat, Transport, Manufacturing

Energy comes from

Coal, oil, gas, nuclear, hydropower

Energy trilemma

• meeting energy security, energy equity, energy sustainability

• energy security tends to be priority

• equity & sustainability not as prioritized (bc of $)

Paris Agreement

• Global climate framework

• guides long term goals, measures resilience, funding assistance to developing countries

• each country must submit plan every 5 years

• must cut emissions by at least 45% to keep warming to 1.5C

Solar

Harnessed directly from sun (even in cloudy weather)

• Solar Photovoltaic (PV) - electronic devices to convert sun to electricity

• Concentrated solar power (CSP) - mirrors to concentrate solar rays. Need lots of space

Trade offs = efficiency, cost, durability

Solar cells produce waste after disposal (Not good for LCA)

Wind

converting KE of or air in motion to electricity

• UK = forefront of offshore !

Energy Storage

needed to provide energy flexibility, to be deployed from minutes/hours-days/weeks

• >10 hours = long duration energy storage

• hydrogen - energy carrier

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and Carbon Dioxide Storage (CDS)

CCS - separating CO2 at point of emission and permanently storing it elsewhere

CDR - anthropogenic activities removing CO2 and storing in reservoirs or products

Fossil fuels reserve

coal - 139 years

oil - 56 years

gas - 49 years

• but energy demand still rising

Minerals

mineral - solid substance with defined chem composition

rock - 1 mineral or aggregate of 2+

mineral deposit - location of concentration of geologic process

ore deposit - Economically extractable mineral concentration

Critical mineral

Refers to:

1. economic importance

2. supply risk/disruption

• Overall, “critical” = economic/geopolitical (not geological)

Which technology will drive the greatest mineral demand

1. EVs / batteries

2. Solar

• lowest = least amount

Why are recycling rates low for so many critical minerals?

• costs

• complex product design

Water usage in minerals

• mining/extraction uses significant water quantities

• waste can contaminate groundwater

• many mines located in countries already water-stressed (eg Subsaharan Africa)