PYSCH SEM 2 FINAL

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

Nature vs Nurture Debate

Controversy over the relative contributions of genes (nature) and experience (nurture) to the development of traits

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Natural Selection

The principle that traits contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Adaptation

An inherited trait or characteristic that has evolved by natural selection to serve a specific function

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that create our body's building blocks

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins; develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two (1 zygote)

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins; develop from two separate fertilized eggs (2 separate eggs)

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Soma (Cell Body)

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Axon Terminals/Terminal Buttons

The endpoints of a neuron; form junctions (synapses) with other cells

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue that encases the axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission speed

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath along the axon

Schwann Cells

Cells that produce the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons (meeting point)

Synapse/Synaptic Cleft

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the meeting point

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (action potential)

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge; a temporary flow of positive ions that travels down an axon; a neural impulse

Resting Potential

A period of inactivity after a neuron is fired (negatively charged/ready to fire)

Refractory Period

A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired

All-or-None Response

A neuron's reaction of either firing with full force or not firing at all

Agonist

A molecule (like morphine) that increases a neurotransmitter's action

Antagonist

A molecule (like curare) that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory; undersupply can cause Alzheimer's

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply linked to Schizophrenia; undersupply linked to Parkinson's

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal (fight or flight); undersupply can depress mood

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply can overstimulate the brain (migraines or seizures)

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter related to pain perception and natural feelings of pleasure/euphoria

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in pain perception

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells

ShutterstockNerve

A bundle of axons that forms common pathways via various neurons

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; the body's decision-maker

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the internal organ muscles (automatic functions)

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

The part of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles (voluntary movement)

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fight or flight)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy

Afferent Neurons (Sensory)

Carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord (CNS)

Efferent Neurons (Motor)

Carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord (CNS) to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally between sensory inputs and motor outputs

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself, especially after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Hindbrain

The oldest part of the brain; consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; controls essential survival functions

Midbrain

Sits above the hindbrain; connects the hindbrain to the forebrain

Forebrain

The newest part of the brain; consists of the cerebrum, cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; controls higher-level cognitive abilities

Brainstem

Consists of the pons and medulla; responsible for heart-beat and basic life support

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex

Reticular Formation

Filters incoming stimuli and helps control arousal and sleep

Medulla

Controls heart rate and breathing; works with the brainstem

Pons

Helps coordinate movement and control sleep

Cerebellum

The "little brain"; functions include coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Hypothalamus

Maintains the body's internal steady state (homeostasis); controls hunger, thirst, and body temperature

Amygdala

Two neural clusters linked to emotion (fear and aggression)

Hippocampus

Processes explicit memories for storage

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

Pituitary Gland

The master endocrine gland; regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Pineal Gland

Gland that is related to sleep and wake cycles (melatonin)

Cerebral Cortex

The body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Frontal Lobes

Involved in speaking, muscle movements, and making plans and judgments; controls behavior and movement

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Broca's Area

Controls language expression; an area of the frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech production

Parietal Lobes

Receive sensory input for touch and body position

Somatosensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Temporal Lobes

Include the auditory areas (hearing)

Auditory Cortex

Part of the temporal lobe responsible for hearing

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception; involved in language comprehension and understanding speech

Occipital Lobes

Include areas that receive information from the visual fields

Visual Cortex

Part of the occipital lobe responsible for visual processing

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher-level thinking such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Lesion

Tissue destruction; a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface (electrodes on the scalp)

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a task

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue (shows brain anatomy)

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans (shows brain function)

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan

A series of X-ray photographs combined into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure

Wavelength

The distance from one peak of a wave to the next; determines hue (color)

Intensity

The amount of energy in a light wave (amplitude); influences brightness

Amplitude

The height of a wave; determines intensity (brightness or loudness)

Cornea

Protects the eye and bends light to help focus

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored part of the eye, controlling the size of the pupil opening

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Lens

Changes shape (by accommodation) to help focus images on the retina

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye; begins processing of visual information

Optic Nerve

Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain (axons of ganglion cells)

Rods

Photoreceptor cells that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for twilight or peripheral vision

Cones

Photoreceptor cells that function in daylight; detect fine detail and color

Blind Spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; contains no receptor cells