Anatomy Lab Practical 1 Review

lateral

the side or direction toward the side of the body

Medial

middle or direction toward the middle of the body

Proximal

a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or trunk of the body

Distal

a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

Superficial

a position closer to the surface of the body

Contralateral

describes structures found on opposite sides of the body (ex. right v left)

Ipsilateral

describes structures found on the same side of the body

Sagittal plane

divides the body/organ vertically into right and left sides

Midsagittal section

divides the body/organ down the middle of the body

Parasagittal section

divides the body/organ vertically into unequal sides

Frontal plane (coronal plane)

divides the body/organ into an anterior portion and a posterior portion

Transverse plane

divides body/organ horizontally into upper and lower portions

Oblique section

diagonal section of body/organ and can produce uneven sections

Dorsal cavitiy

contain the cranial and vertebral cavity

Ventral cavity

contains the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

Thoracic cavity

contains the lungs (pleural cavity) and the heart (pericardial cavity)

Abdominopelvic cavity

largest cavity of the body-- can be distinguished into two parts: abdominal cavity which contains the digestive organs and the pelvic cavity which contains the reproductive organs

Human anatomy

the scientific study of the body's structures

Gross anatomy

the study of the larger structures without the aid of magnification

Microscopic anatomy

cytology (study of cells) and histology (study of tissues)

physiology

chemistry and physics of the structure of the body and how they work together to support the functions necessary for life

Structural organization of the body (from smallest to largest)

Chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organismal level

anatomical position

To stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward

Anterior (ventral)

the front or direction toward the front of the body.

Posterior (dorsal)

the back or direction toward the back of the body

Superior (cranial)

A position above or higher than another part of the body

Inferior (caudal)

a position below or lower than another part of the body

Right hypochondriac region

Epigastric region

Left hypochondriac region

Right lumbar region

Umbilical region

Left lumbar region

Right iliac region

Hypogastric region

Left iliac region

Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

Cell membrane

separates the intracellular contents of a cell from the exterior environment. it provides a protective barrier and regulates what materials can pass in or out.

What is the cell membrane made of?

Back to back phospholipids (aka the phospholipid bilayer), cholesterol (which contributes to fluidity) and proteins

Integral proteins

embedded into the cell membrane and allow cells to move materials between intracellular and extracellular environments

Peripheral proteins

found on the inner or outer surface of the lipid bilayer but sometimes are attached to integral proteins. They act as digestive enzymes to break down nutrients

Cytoplasm

contains the cytosol, organelles, and cytoskeleton

Cytosol

fluid component of the cytoplasm and is the jelly-like substance that includes the components necessary for cellular function

Cytoskeleton

group of fibrous proteins (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules) that help cells maintain their structural integrity. They also are essential for cell motility, cell reproduction, and transportation of substances within the cell

Nucleus

contains the cell's DNA and directs cellular functions

Mitochondrion

converts energy storage molecules into the major energy molecule (ATP) to power cellular function

Ribosome

protein synthesis

Rough ER

includes ribosomes for the synthesis and modification of proteins

Smooth ER

lipid synthesis

Golgi apparatus/complex

sorts, modifies, and ships products from the ER

Lysosome

contains digestive enzymes to break down materials

Perioxisome

contains enzymes key for lipid metabolism and chemical detoxification

Cell cycle

consists of two phases: interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis

Interphase

period of the cell cycle during which the cell is not dividing

G1 phase

first gap/growth phase in the cell cycle

S phase (synthesis phase)

period during which a cell replicates its DNA

G2 phase (second gap phase)

cell continues to grow and make necessary preparations for mitosis

Mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

Prophase

1. chromosomes condense and become visible

2. spindle fibers emerge from centrosomes

3. nuclear envelope breaks down

4. centrosomes move toward opposite poles

Prometaphase

1. chromosomes continue to condense

2. kinetochores appear at the centromeres

3. mitotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores

Metaphase

1. chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate

2. each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles

Anaphase

1. centromeres split in two

2. sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles

3. certain. spindle fibers begin to elongate the cell

Telophase

1. chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense

2. nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of chromosomes

3. mitotic spindle breaks down

4. spindle fibers continue to push poles apart

Cytokinesis

in animal cells: a cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells

in plant cells: a cell plate, the precursor to a new cell wall, separates the daughter cells

tissue

group of cells that have a similar structure and are arranged in an orderly pattern that achieves the tissue's functions

What are the four categories of tissues?

Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Epithelial tissue/epithelium

sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, lines internal cavities and passageways, and forms certain glands

Connective tissue

binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body

Muscle tissue

is excitable, responds to stimulation and contracts to provide movement

Nervous tissue

is excitable, allows the propagation of electrochemical signals in the form of nerve impulses that allow communication between different regions of the body

organ

a combination of several types of tissues that form a working unit

Where is epithelium found?

Skin, airways, digestive tract, urinary and reproductive systems, hollow organs and body cavities that do not connect to the exterior of the body (blood vessels and serous membranes)

Structural/functional features of epithelial tissue

1. Polarity- certain organelles are segregated to the basal surface sides, whereas others (like cilia) are on the apical surface

2. Supported by connective tissue

3. Avascular (do not contain blood cells)

4. Innervated- supplied by nervous tissue to allow interaction with external environment

5. Regeneration- many are capable of rapidly replacing damaged and dead cells

What are the 2 (or 3) key function of epithelial tissues?

1. Protection from physical, chemical, and biological wear and tear

2. Controls permeability and allows selective transfer of materials across a physical barrier

3. Some are capable of secretion and release mucous and specific chemical compounds into their apical surfaces (ex. epithelium of the small intestine releases digestive enzymes)

Simple squamous epithelium

Found in air sacs of lungs, lining of the heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

Allows materials to pass through by diffusion and filtration, secretes lubricating substance

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Found in ducts and secretory portions of small glands and in kidney tubules

Secretes and absorbs

Simple columnar epithelium

Ciliated tissues are in bronchi, uterine tubes, and uterus; smooth (nonciliated tissues) are in the digestive tract, bladder

Absorbs; also secretes mucous and enzymes

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Ciliated tissues lines the trachea and much of the upper respiratory tract

Secretes mucus; ciliated tissue moves mucus

Non-keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium

Lines the esophagus, mouth, and vagina

Protects against abrasion

Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium

stratified cuboidal epithelium

Found in sweat glands, salivary glands, and the mammary glands

Function: Protective tissue

stratified columnar epithelium

Found in the male urethra and the ducts of some glands

Secretes and protects

transitional epithelium

Lines the bladder, urethra, and the ureters

Allows the urinary organs to expand and stretch

What are the functions of connective tissues?

- Connection and protection

- also, some specialized cells in this tissue are involved in the transport of fluid, nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers (ex. blood and lymph)

- Adipose store surplus energy in the form of fat and contribute to thermal insulation of the body

Where is connective tissue found?

In the matrix of the tissue

What are three characteristic components of connective tissue?

1. Specialized cells

2. Large amounts of ground substance (from watery fluid in blood, dense gel in cartilage, to mineralized matrix in bones)

3. Extracellular protein fibers

What are the three broad categories of connective tissue?

1. Connective Tissue Proper

2. Supportive Connective Tissue

3. Fluid Connective Tissue

Connective tissue proper

includes loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue

Loose connective tissue

includes a variety of cell types (mesenchymal cells, fibroblasts, fibrocytes, adipocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes and mast cells) and protein fibers (collagen, elastic, and reticular). Fibers are loosely organized

Dense connective tissue

reinforced by bundles of fibers that provide strength, elasticity, and protection. Has more collagen fibers than loose connective tissue

What is the function of loose connective tissue?

Absorbs shock and binds tissues together while allowing waters, salts, and various nutrients to diffuse through to adjacent or embedded cells and tissues.

What are the three types of loose connective tissue?

Areolar, adipose, reticular

Areolar tissue

basically looks like a web of loose connective tissue. not many stand out characteristics

Adipose tissue

composed of fat storage cells with little extracellular matrix

Reticular tissue

mesh-like, supportive framework for soft organs (lymphatic tissue, spleen, and the liver)

What are the two major types of dense connective tissue?

Dense regular and dense irregular

Dense regular connective tissue

has collagen fibers that run parallel to each other that enhance strength and resistance to stretching (ex. ligaments and muscle tendons)