Component 2: Health and performance

Define health

A state of complete physical, emotional and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

State and explain what these conditions are and what causes them:

• high cholesterol

• stroke

• CHD

• type 2 diabetes

• High cholesterol: when there is too much fatty substance (cholesterol) in the blood; this builds up in arteries and increases the risk of CHD and strokes

• Stroke: when the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off. Caused by a blocked artery as a result of high cholesterol (fatty deposits, plaque, block arteries)

• Coronary heart disease: coronary arteries become narrowed or blocked due to fatty deposits as a result of high cholesterol

• Type 2 diabetes: body does not respond properly to insulin, causing high blood sugar (as a result of sedentary lifestyle, overfat, poor diet)

• High blood pressure: when the force of blood pushing against artery walls is too high, making the heart work harder due to high cholesterol and (stress, nicotine, alcohol, overfat)

Improvements in physical health result from exercise.

Give physical health benefits and explain how these benefits are achieved.

• Stronger bones/reduced risk of developing osteoporosis

Taking part in weight-bearing activities like running, walking or lifting weights.

• Reduced risk of CHD (coronary heart disease)

Reducing cholesterol, lowering blood pressure through regular cardiovascular activity.

• Reduced chance of stroke, heart disease, high blood pressure

Reducing cholesterol and lowering blood pressure through regular cardiovascular activity which strengthens the heart muscle.

• Reduced chance of obesity, type 2 diabetes

Burning excess calories while exercising

• Reduced risk of injury, increased mobility

Resistance training strengthens muscles and tendons, supporting joints; flexibility exercises increase range of motion which reduces strains

State how participation in physical activity and sport can improve emotional health and explain how these benefits are achieved

• Relieves stress

Exercise releases endorphins which improve mood, acts as a distraction from problems and people have fun when they play

• Reduces boredom and low mood

Gives people something to do, and winning makes people feel good, release of endorphins

• Releases endorphins, which act as ‘feel good’ hormones

Exercise releases hormones which improve mood regulation and reduces low mood

• Increased confidence and self esteem

Players are a part of a team so feel a part of something; performing better as a result of practising

State how participation in physical activity and sport can improve social health and explain how these benefits are achieved.

• Allows people to make friends and build relationships

As working together on a shared goal as a team creates bonds

• Improves communication skills

Sports requires players to give instructions, share ideas and provide feedback; learning to listen and respond correctly improves skills

• Develops teamwork and coordination skills

Team sports require group collaboration and joint problem solving

• Improves leadership skills

Team sports require players to take on leadership roles, giving them confidence to continue doing this outside of sport

Give the negative effects of fitness and exercise on physical health and wellbeing

• overexertion leading to heart attack, stroke or injuries

• overuse injuries, eg. strain, sprain, fractures from accidents during exercise

• less effective immune system, as excessive fatigue can suppress the immune system if recovery is insufficient

Give the negative effects of fitness and exercise on emotional health and wellbeing

• training could lead to an injury, and if a performer cannot train this can lead to depression

• stress and emotional burnout from extreme exercise regime

• low self esteem and confidence as a result of pressure from coaches and teammates

Give the negative effects of fitness and exercise on social health and wellbeing

• isolation; strict training regime can reduce social interactions

• conflict with teammates due to intense pressure, so loss of friendships

What are the five steps of creating a PEP, and why are all of these stages important?

Aim, design, develop, monitor, evaluate

• A clear aim provides focus and motivation as it gives a sense of purpose. It also allows the PEP to be designed well and specific to the individual person and their goals.

• It is important to design it to ensure that it is safe, effective and tailored to the individual’s needs.

• Developing the PEP means to refine the activities so they can continue to be appropriate to the aim (eg. progressive overload), so it prevents plateaus, so the individual can achieve their aim. It makes sure that it continues to match the individual’s needs even if the individual undergoes changes.

• It is important to monitor the PEP to track progress and to be able to identify when changes needed to be made to the programme. It ensures safety, identifies strengths and weaknesses and maintains motivation

• Should be evaluated regularly to see if the programme or the aims need to be modified to maximise effectiveness.

Name the four lifestyle factors

• Diet

• Activity level

• Work/rest/sleep balance

• Recreational drugs (alcohol, nicotine)

Give the positive and negative impacts of good/poor diet on wellbeing

Positive:

• Maintains healthy body weight

• Prevents type 2 diabetes, obesity, CHD, high blood pressure

• Provides energy for daily activity and exercise

• Supports good mental health

• Supports growth, repair, immunity

• Reduces risk of illness

Negative:

• Obesity, underweight

• Heart disease, obesity, type 2 diabetes

• Poor concentration, fatigue

Give the positive and negative impacts of good/poor work/rest/sleep balance on wellbeing

Positive:

• reduces risk of illness and injury (allows immune system and muscles to recover)

• improves coordination and concentration

• improves mood and emotional regulation (hormonal regulation)

• reduces stress and burnout (hormonal regulation)

Negative:

• increased risk of illness and fatigue

• reduced physical performance

• higher risk of injury

Give the negative effects of alcohol and nicotine on wellbeing and performance

Alcohol, wellbeing:

• Heart failure

• Increased blood pressure

• Increased risk of obesity

• Liver disease/ cancer

Alcohol, performance:

• Slower reaction time

• Loss of coordination

• Loss of concentration

Nicotine, wellbeing:

• Strokes

• Heart disease

• Lung diseases

• Blood clots

• Lung cancer

Nicotine, performance:

• Causes breathlessness

• Reduces oxygen carrying capacity

What is a sedentary lifestyle?

A lifestyle with little or no physical activity

State the risks of a sedentary lifestyle and explain their causes

• Heart disease

Increased blood pressure, increased blood cholesterol due to lack of exercise, stress

• Type 2 diabetes

Not burning excess calories through exercise, overweight

• Obesity

Not burning excess calories through exercise, reduced metabolism

• Osteoporosis

Due to lack of weight bearing activity

• Loss of muscle tone, poor posture

Due to weak muscles, lack of muscle use, atrophy

• Poor fitness

Lack of muscle tone, atrophy, lack of cardiovascular fitness

• Depression

Low self esteem due to not feeling a part of something, overweight, no endorphins released

Define overweight

Above the expected weight for an individual’s height and sex

Define overfat and state its risks

An individual having more body fat than they should have

Risks: high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels (increases risk of CHD and strokes)

Define obese and state its risks

An individual who has excess body fat and is very overfat
Risks: mobility issues/lack of flexibility, stress on bones and joints, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, depression due to low self esteem

Explain the energy balance equation

• If an individual consumes more calories than they burn, they will gain weight

• If an individual consumes less calories than they burn, they will lose weight

• If an individual consumes an equal amount of calories to the amount they burn, they will maintain their weight

This can have different consequences (eg. a weight-class athlete, a jockey causing a horse to go slower)

Name the macronutrients and explain their purposes

Carbohydrates: primary source of energy; provide energy for use in aerobic and anaerobic activity

Fats: secondary source of energy, slow release for long, low-intensity exercise. Also provides insulation and protects organs

Proteins: used for muscle growth and repair

Explain the importance of carbohydrate loading for athletes

• Increasing an athlete’s carbohydrate consumption in the days before the event to maximise glycogen stores in the muscles and liver

• Higher glycogen stores delay fatigue, so an athlete won’t have to use fat stores as energy (which is harder and longer to breakdown)

• So they can work at a higher performance for longer

Explain the importance of timing of protein intake for athletes

It is best to consume protein within the ‘golden hour’ of exercise

• Maximises protein synthesis to maximise growth and repair of muscle tissue that has been broken down during physical activity

Name the micronutrients and explain their purposes

• Vitamins: support immune system, general health and growth

Eg. vitamin C (immunity), vitamin D (bone health), vitamin A (vision)

• Minerals: needed for healthy bones, blood and muscle function

Eg. calcium (bones), iron (oxygen transport around the body to muscles), potassium (muscle contraction)

• Water: essential for hydration and temperature regulation

• Fibre: supports the digestive system and promotes fullness (which can prevent obesity)

Define optimum weight

The ideal weight someone should be

State the factors that affect optimum weight

• Muscular girth

• Sex

• Height

• Bone structure

Why is hydration important?

• Regulates body temperature

• Prevents dehydration (which causes nausea, dizziness, fatigue, headaches, reduced concentration)

• Prevents fatigue and muscle cramps

• Maintains concentration

What does dehydration cause?

• Dizziness

• Nausea

• Fatigue

• Headaches

• Lightheadedness

What are the three skill continua?

• Open - closed

• Basic (simple) - complex

• Low organisation - high organisation

What are open skills? Give examples.

Open skills are skills that are affected by the surrounding environment.

Extreme open skills need to constantly be adapted by the performer to meet the requirements of the activity as situations around them change.

Conditions are unstable and unlikely to be the same each time the skill is performed.

Examples:

• pass in hockey

• dribbling in football

• rugby tackle

What are closed skills? Give examples.

Closed skills are skills that are not affected by the surrounding environment

Extreme closed skills do not need to be adapted, because situations around the performer are stable.

Conditions are likely to be the same each time the skill is performed.

Examples:

• penalty kick in football

• pole vault

• tennis serve

What are basic (simple) skills? Give examples

Basic (simple) skills are skills that are

• simple,

• require little thought,

• require little decision making and

• require little information processing

Examples:

• running

• cycling

• swimming

• chest pass

What are complex skills?

Complex skills are skills that are

• difficult

• require thought and concentration

• require a lot of decision making and

• require a lot of information processing

Examples:

• trying to dribble past defenders

• rock climbing

• passing the baton in a relay race

• lay up in basketball

What are low organisation skills? Give examples

Low organisation skills are skills that are

• easy to do and

• have clear separate phases (making them easier to break down and practice)

Examples:

• tennis serve

• triple jump

What are high organisation skills?

High organisation are skills that are

• harder to do and

• have phases that are not clearly broken down without affecting the skill (making them harder to practice)

Examples:

• tumbling in gymnastics

• golf swing

Name the different types of skill practice structures

• Massed practice

• Distributed practice

• Fixed practice

• Variable practice

What is massed practice, what is it used for and what are its advantages and disadvantages?

Massed practice is a practice structure where there are very little or no breaks in a session so the skill is continuously repeated over and over.

Mass practice is used when

the performer is:

• experienced, skilled

• older (less likely to get bored)

• very fit

the skill is:

• simple (don’t require much thinking or much information processing so are easy to repeat continuously)

• closed (as continuous repetition in an unpredictable environment is impossible)

• low organisation (can be easily repeated as they are easily broken down into parts or practised in isolation as they have clear separate phases)

• not dangerous (players may fatigue or lose concentration)

Advantages:

• The player can gain a kinaesthetic feel of the movement pattern, so it is repeated when they need to do it

• Develops fitness

Disadvantages:

• May be boring, so may lead to loss of motivation

• Fatiguing and tiring, so may lead to a drop in performance and concentration over the training session and potentially accidents

• Not good for beginners as they need frequent feedback and corrections and fatigue makes the technique worse, so they may learn it incorrectly

What is distributed practice, what is it used for and what are its advantages and disadvantages?

Distributed practice is a practice structure where there are breaks in the session providing rest periods or changes of activity.

There are fewer repetitions and several skills can be practised rather than just one.

Massed practice is used when

the performer is:

• a beginner, not very skilled

• young (more likely to get bored)

• not very fit

the skill is:

• complex (requires lots of concentration and focus, so allows them to rest to not be fatigued)

• high organisation (have phases that are not clearly broken down without affecting the skill so required both mental focus and physical control, which is easier to do when not fatigued)

• open (rest periods allow the performer to analyse the situation, adapt and make decisions before the next attempt, as the environment is always changing)

• dangerous

Advantages:

• performer doesn’t get too tired, so retains concentration and technique

• it prevents boredom, keeps motivation high

• good for beginners as they can receive lots of feedback and support and recover

Disadvantages:

• it is a slower process, so may take the performer a longer time to gain the skill which may disrupt motivation

• breaks may be disruptive to the performer’s learning and flow

What is fixed practice, when it is used and what are its advantages and disadvantages?

Fixed practice is a practice structure where the whole movement of a skill is repeatedly practised in the same way so that it is well learned; the skill is not broken down into smaller parts.

Fixed practice is used when:

• the situation does not change

• the routine is repeated and ‘grooved’ until it becomes automatic (allows the performer to develop a kinaesthetic feel)

• the equipment stays the same

Advantages:

• Builds consistency

• Helps develop kinaesthetic feel/ muscle memory

• Good for perfecting technique

Disadvantages:

• May become boring

• Not suitable for open skills

• Doesn’t prepare the performer for changes in situation and environment

What is variable practice, when is it used and what are its advantages and disadvantages?

Variable practice is a practice structure when the same skill is repeated in different situations and conditions.

Learning the skills in different situations means that when the different situations arise during performance, the performer already has experience of them.

Variable practice is used when:

• when a sport is mainly made up of open skills because the situation is constantly changing

• the level of difficulty needs to be increased over time

Advantages:

• Improves decision making

• Helps transfer skills to game situations

• Builds adaptability

Disadvantages:

• Harder for beginners

• Can be confusing

• More demanding, requires more planning, requires more concentration

Name the types of guidance

Guidance is information or support provided to help a performer learn or improve a skill.

• visual

• verbal

• manual

• mechanical

What is visual guidance? Give its advantages and disadvantages

Visual guidance is when the performer is shown the skill, and can see the skill being performed

Advantages:

• Can be done with large groups

• Provides learner with a mental image

• Performers can copy the movement

Better for less complex skills.

Disadvantages:

• Needs to be accurate and clear otherwise skill can be learned incorrectly

• If the skill is complex, it may demotivate the learner

• Information overload for beginners

• Time consuming if videos are used, video equipment may be required

• Complex or quick movements are difficult to see clearly and copy

What is verbal guidance? Give its advantages and disadvantages

Verbal guidance is when the performer is told information through spoken instructions about how to complete the correct technique.

It allows the performer to

Advantages:

• Verbal instructions can be given quickly

• Verbal instructions can be given during performance (feedback can be given immediately)

• No equipment is required

Disadvantages:

• Relies on the coach’s communication skills

• Information overload for beginners

• Learners may lose concentration

• Beginners may not understand specific terminology

• Some complex movements are difficult to verbally explain

What is manual guidance? Give its advantages and disadvantages

Manual guidance is where the coach physically supports or moves the performer.

Advantages:

• Performer can gain a kinaesthetic feel for the movement

• Builds confidence

• Eliminates danger

• Can help break the movement down into phases so it is easier to understand

Disadvantages:

• Kinaesthetic feel is not the same as doing it unaided

• Learners may become dependent on the support as it interferes with kinaesthetic awareness

• Learners may be uncomfortable with the proximity

• Can only be used 1:1, so will take a long amount of time to get around to everybody in a large group

What is mechanical guidance? Give its advantages and disadvantages

Mechanical guidance is where equipment is used to support the learner while practising the skill

Advantages:

• Performer can gain a kinaesthetic feel for the movement

• Builds confidence

• Reduces danger

Disadvantages:

• Performer can become dependent on the support

• Kinaesthetic feeling is not the same as doing it unaided

• Requires equipment

• Learner doesn’t get the opportunity to correct mistakes within the technique

Name the types of feedback

• Intrinsic

• Extrinsic

• Concurrent

• Terminal

What is feedback used for? For feedback to be effective, what must it be?

Feedback is used to:

• provide information about the skill being performed

• help improve the skill

• reinforce good practise

To be effective feed back must be:

• not too long as not to cause information overload

• be given as soon as possible, while the memory of performance is still fresh

• be relevant for the performer

What is intrinsic feedback and why is it important?

Feedback from within the performer, using their senses.

This is important as it allows the performer to not be too reliant on others.

What is extrinsic feedback and why is it important?

Feedback from outside of the performer (eg. a coach).

This is important as someone watching the skill can observe problems and explain what needs to be done to correct them.

What is concurrent feedback and why is it important?

Concurrent feedback is feedback given during a performance.

It is important as it allows problems to be corrected and not repeated during the performance.

What is terminal feedback and why is it important?

Terminal feedback is feedback given after the performance.

Sometimes feedback cannot be given during the performance as it may distract or overload performers, so allows performers to reflect and improve technique after for the future.

Give examples of mental preparation for a performance

• Warm up

• Mental rehearsal

What is mental rehearsal and what are its benefits?

Mental rehearsal is when a performer mentally practises and visualises themselves performing a skill successfully in their mind before doing it physically.

A performer may go through a skill or sequence of events they are about to perform in their mind to help clarify the skill they are about to perform, so that they are confident that they are ready.

Benefits of mental rehearsal:

• be used to develop an existing skill

• help to focus the mind on the task

• reduce anxiety (due to focus)

• build confidence (due to mentally seeing successful performances)

Name the personal factors that affect participation rates and activities participated in

• Gender

• Age

• Socio-economic group

• Ethnicity

• Disability

Why may an individual’s socio-economic group affect participation rates and the activities participated in?

• Cost

  • Equipment

  • Club or lesson fees

  • Specialist clothing

• Availability

  • People that work long hours may be unable to travel

• Time

  • Some activities take a long time, and people have work commitments

Why may an individual’s age affect participation rates and the activities participated in?

Children / Young people

• Often have more free time outside school to take part in sport and physical activity.

• Generally have high energy levels and faster recovery, encouraging frequent participation.

Adults

• Participation may decrease due to work commitments, family responsibilities, and less free time.

• May have more disposable income, allowing participation in activities requiring fees or equipment (e.g., gym, golf).

• Fitness levels and energy may decline with age, influencing the intensity or type of activity chosen.

Older Adults / Elderly

• Participation may decline further due to reduced mobility, health issues, and slower recovery.

Why may an individual’s gender affect participation rates and the activities participated in?

• Societal stereotypes about the nature of sports

  • Some sports are seen as feminine or masculine, which can prevent people from participating as they do not want to be perceived as ‘soft’ or ‘too masculine’

• Cost

  • Women generally earn less than men, so cannot afford to compete

• Time

  • Traditionally women will have restricted time as they are socially expected to look after the household and work, so have less time for sport

• Less role models in the media for women

  • Young girls are not encouraged to participate as much as young boys

Why may an individual’s ethnicity affect participation rates and the activities participated in?

• Ethnic minorities have fewer role models in the media

  • Are not encouraged as much

• Cost

  • Due to social inequalities, ethnic minorities may face financial barriers that prevent them from being able to participate

• Stereotyping

  • People may prefer to participate in sports that are already popular with people of their own ethnicity or culture

• Cultural and religious beliefs

  • Some religions require modest clothing, which can make participation in sports like swimming or gymnastics difficult

  • Some activities may conflict with cultural values (eg. contact sports or mixed gender sports)

Why may disability affect participation rates and the activities participated in?

• Availability

  • Lack of specialised facilities or clubs in an area

• Cost

  • Specialist equipment can be expensive

• Access

  • Physical barriers such as a lack of wheelchair ramps or pool hoists

• Stereotyping

  • People may assume that disabled people are less able to participate in sport, which impacts opportunities; fear of judgement

Define commercialisation of sport

The process of managing, marketing and treating sport as a business to generate profit

Describe the relationship between commercialisation, the media and physical activity + sport

Known as the golden triangle because of the benefits each gives the others; they all are interrelated and benefit each other

Describe the golden triangle

The golden triangle describes the interrelationship between commercialisation, the media and physical activity + sport

Describe the advantages of commercialisation for:

• The sponsor

• The sport

• The player/ performer

• The spectator

• The sponsor

  • Raises awareness of the company or brand, leading to increases sales

  • Advertises their products and services

  • Product associated with high-quality performance or health and fitness, giving the brand high status

  • Increased sales or revenue through increased media exposure

• The sport

  • More media coverage →raised awareness of sports →encourages participation →higher profile of sport →more commercial interest →increased funding from sponsors, used to:

    • Run events

    • Develop better facilities

    • Invest in equipment, coaches, players

  • Can develop grassroots so can increase participation

  • Positive association → participation

  • Awareness + knowledge; people know how to play, people want to play

• The player/ performer

  • Can be paid millions to endorse products

  • Can train full time and not have to work another job to survive, so can focus on becoming the best at their sport

  • Can receive top quality products to use to help performance

• The spectator

  • More coverage, so improved access for viewing

  • Funding can improve stadiums and seating, creating better facilities and experiences

  • Higher quality events as money is invested in production, athletes and teams

  • Access to replays and increased choice of sports for viewing

Describe the disadvantages of commercialisation for:

• The sponsor

• The sport

• The player/ performer

• The spectator

• The sponsor

  • Very high costs; this is risky as the media may not get a high number of viewers

  • Risk of bad publicity if the team does not play well or a performer behaves poorly, which can damage the sponsor’s reputation

• The sport

  • Clothing and rule changes to make the game more appealing to viewers

  • Fixture times and length of season changed to maximise viewing opportunities

  • Breaks in play for advertising purposes

  • If minority sports are not shown by the media, it can lead to a decrease in participation

  • Negative reporting can give the sport a bad reputation

• The player/ performer

  • Changes to fixture time and lengths of season can make conditions less favourable for performers

  • Product may have a bad image or be unethical, giving a bad reputation for the performer

  • Required appearances take time away from training

  • Pressure and stress to perform consistently to satisfy sponsors

  • Restricted to only sponsored clothing/equipment

  • Lack of privacy due to constant media coverage

• The spectator

  • High subscription cost for sports channels

  • High cost of merchandise

  • Excessive advertising can disrupt the viewing experience

  • Minority sports may not be shown, meaning that individuals cannot view them

Explain the two different types of sporting behaviours

• Sportsmanship

  • Playing fairly, respecting the rules, opponents and officials and showing good conduct in both winning and losing - not trying to win by unfair means

• Gamesmanship

  • Bending the rules to try to gain an unfair advantage, without deliberately breaking the rules

Give examples of sportsmanship and gamesmanship

• Sportsmanship

  • Shaking hands with opponents and officials

  • Being honest if the ball is out or if a rule is broken

  • Helping an opponent up if they fall

• Gamesmanship

  • Time wasting

  • Deliberately distracting an opponent

  • Faking an injury to slow the game or gain a substitution

What do sportsmanship and gamesmanship create?

• Sportsmanship

  • Good role models

  • A positive image of the sport

  • Satisfaction/ pride

• Gamesmanship

  • Bad role models

  • A negative image of the sport

  • Dissatisfaction, guilt

Define deviance in sport and give examples

Behaviour that goes against the rules or commonly accepted norms of the sport

• Cheating

• Taking PEDs

• Violence

• Racism

• Sexism

What are the reasons for deviance at elite levels?

• Prizes

• Fame

• Sponsorship

• Money

• Promotion to a higher team

• Pressure from coaches/ peers

What are the consequences for deviance? What is being done to prevent it?

• Red card/ being sent off

• Fines

• Banned from playing

• Loss of sponsors

• Loss of reputation

• Prison (illegal drugs, bodily harm)

Prevention:

• Random drugs testing

• Fair play awards

• Anti-drug, anti-racism campaigns