Nationalism

How many republics was the Soviet Union divided into?

different republics and many republics contained semi-autonomous regions - contained a large number of different nationalities besides Russians

When the Soviet Union collapsed, what was it replaced with?

15 different independent states, a fact that in itself implies that nationalism may have played a large role in bringing about the end of the Soviet Union

Brezhnev Doctrine?

Soviet control over Eastern Europe had been enforced by military action

When was the Brezhnev Doctrine formulated?

after the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968 to prevent the Czech communist government introducing liberal reforms in response to popular protests

What had Brezhnev made clear?

that "Whenever internal and external forces hostile to Socialism try to reverse the development of a Socialist country towards the restoration of capitalism... this becomes the concern of all Socialist countries."

What did Gorbachev inform every leader of the communist regimes of Eastern Europe, when he met them?

that he would not intervene in their internal affairs. They were free to choose their own path of socialism

Supporting satellite states had become increasingly expensive - how much had the USSR spent annually on propping up communist governments throughout the world?

approximately $40 billion annually

What did Gorbachev believe this money could be used for?

to promote domestic reform

What did Gorbachev have a genuine belief in?

that this was the way to rejuvenate socialism - hoped that many would follow his lead in economic reforms

What did Gorbachev refuse to use to keep the population under control?

force - He believed the use of armed intervention was, in most cases, morally wrong

Instead of seeing foreign policy as a tool of class struggle against the forces of capitalism, what did Gorbachev focus on?

universal values of human rights to promote the interests of all peoples

What did the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine mean the peoples of Eastern Europe could now choose?

their own governments (The consequences of this change were to be spectacular)

What did Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR lead to (2)?

attempts by some governments in Eastern Europe to reform in response to the new Soviet lead, and increased the pressure for change from the public

What was much of this pressure driven by?

nationalist sentiments: communist rule had been imposed on Eastern Europe after the Second World War and was associated with Soviet control. Now there was an opportunity for each nation to decide its own future

What happened to Those governments that resisted these trends?

became quickly isolated

Who did The ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine posed a particular problem for?

those Eastern European leaders who wanted to resist reform - They could no longer rely on Soviet military intervention to buttress their regimes

Poland: when did the communist government decide to decided to allow other political groups to stand in elections?

1989 - yielded to pressure from the independent workers' organisation, Solidarity

Poland: results of the general elections that followed?

Solidarity was able to defeat the Communist Party by a landslide - In the face of this lack of support, the Communist Party collapsed as an organisation

Poland: what did the USSR do?

nothing to stop these events happening, Gorbachev seemed to approve of the Poles deciding on their own future

Poland: what message did these events send to all those pressing for change in other East European states?

the USSR no longer had any wish to impose itself on the internal affairs of Eastern Europe - so the communist collapse spreads

Hungary: where did pressure for reform come from?

within the Communist Party

Hungary: who was sacked in 1988?

Janos Kadar, the hardline leader since 1956, was sacked - The government, now dominated by reformers, decided to allow other political parties to contest elections

East Germany: what was of particular concern to the East German regime?

the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine

Why was East Germany was more reliant on Soviet support than the other regimes of the region?

The creation of East Germany had been a result of superpower tension and hostility after the Second World War - an artificial country

East Germany: What prompted pressure for reform to become unstoppable?

Gorbachev's visit to East Berlin, encouraged those who wished to push for reforms - leading to mass demonstrations on the streets of East German cities

East Germany: When was Gorbachev's visit to East Berlin?

October 1989

East Germany: when did Krenz become the East German leader?

in October 1989

East Germany: what did Krenz refuse to sanction?

widespread repression and, amidst the growing chaos, decided to open access across the Berlin Wall

East Germany: When was the Berlin Wall, the symbol of Cold War Europe, was dismantled by 'people power'?

9 November 1989

Czechoslovakia: when was the communist regime in Czechoslovakia was forced to make concessions in response to public demonstrations calling for reforms?

November 1989

Czechoslovakia: what did the organisation Civic Forum emerge to do?

co-ordinate the campaign to get rid of the communist government

Czechoslovakia: what did severe public pressure lead to?

the communists caved in, reforms were introduced and, in 1989, Václav Havel was elected President

Czechoslovakia: Václav Havel?

a leading playwright and opponent of communism

Romania: afflicted by the weaknesses seen elsewhere - what was the discontented population tired of (4)?

food shortages, a lack of consumer goods, a repressive government and a lack of real democracy

Romania: when did support for the communist regime collapse?

hen demonstrations against the communist government started, at the end of 1989

Romania: how did Nicolae Ceauşescu, Romania's leader respond?

used the army to open fire on the demonstrators - but this merely increased the unpopularity of the regime

Romania: when was Ceauşescu forced to flee Bucharest by helicopter?

By December, when even the army was unwilling to support Ceauşescu

Romania: what sealed the end of communism in Romania?

Ceauşescu’s arrest and subsequent execution on Christmas Day

When did Pope John Paul II visit Poland?

June 1979

During Pope John Paul II’s visit to Poland what words had he addressed those living under communist rule with?

"Do not be afraid"

Impact of the Pope’s words?

encouraged those who sought change

What had played a significant role in mobilising people power against Soviet-imposed communism?

Nationalism

Where people power had been less significant, such as in Hungary and Bulgaria, who had taken the lead in asserting national independence?

Reformers within the ranks of the Communist Parties

By the end of 1989, what had happened to every pro-Soviet communist government in Eastern Europe?

disintegrated

Therefore, what was the role of nationalism a key factor in?

encouraging the assertion of independence by the satellite states

What had The events which had unfolded in Eastern Europe since 1985 highlighted?

the change in Soviet foreign policy and the opportunity for different nationalities to assert their independence - which began to seem more possible as the power of the Soviet Union weakened

3 Factors encouraging the growth of nationalism within the USSR?

Environmental concerns, the insecurity of local Party leaders and culture and language

Who was the issue of environmental concerns of particular interest to?

those in the outlying parts of the Soviet Union, where damage had often been greatest

Where was industrial pollution a major concern?

in the Baltic republics - these issues provided a focal point for local people to rally against the central government in Moscow

Who felt most threatened by Gorbachev's economic and political reforms?

local Party leaders

What had left local communist leaders in positions of power and privilege?

Brezhnev's policy of 'trust in cadres' - They had often built up sizeable powerbases and wealth through corruption

Due to Gorbachev's reforms threating their cosy lifestyle (after Brezhnev had just left them alone), who were local Party leaders more likely to lend their support to?

popular local concerns as an attempt to maintain their position

Who was deeply unpopular amongst the people?

Those who were seen as lackeys of Moscow (local Party leaders didn’t want to appear this way)

By the 1980s, who was the Soviet Union almost equally divided between?

145 million Russians and 141 million non-Russians

Who was amongst the non-Russians?

a range of Slavic peoples, such as Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians and Ukrainians, and non-Slavic peoples, most of whom were Muslim groups in Central Asia and the Caucasus region

What did these nationalities often had a strong sense of their own identity through?

their native language and cultural heritage

Nagorno-Karabakh?

was an autonomous region within the Azerbaijan republic, populated largely by Armenians

Nagorno-Karabakh: what did Ethnic tensions arise over?

the desire of the Armenians in the area to join the Armenian republic

Nagorno-Karabakh: when did these tensions erupt into violence?

1988

Nagorno-Karabakh: what had been organised in the area?

A referendum in the area had been organised that returned a large majority for joining Armenia. This referendum was unofficial and without the consent of the Soviet government

Nagorno-Karabakh: what was another indication of the growing weakness of the central Soviet government in November?

Armenia announced in November that Nagorno-Karabakh was now under its control

Nagorno-Karabakh: as the violence continued what did the Soviet government feel compelled to do?

intervene and impose direct control from Moscow over the region. This 'outside interference' merely inflamed the situation.

Nagorno-Karabakh: what did The affair clearly demonstrate?

the declining power of the central Soviet government over the outlying republics and this was reinforced by the spread of other ethnic clashes

What was the effect of these ethnic clashes?

destabilising central control, but did not necessarily pose a threat to the Soviet Union as a whole.

What was a much more serious threat to the territorial integrity of the Soviet Union?

the growth of nationalism in the Baltic republics

Why was Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania’s history different to the rest of the Soviet republics?

They had been independent states before their incorporation into the USSR in 1939 and there were people in the republics with memory of this

Therefore what did many in the Baltic states still view the Soviet Union as?

an occupying force.

What helped promote an understanding of their language, culture and history in the Baltic republics?

The Baltic republics had higher levels of education than the Soviet average

What promoted a resurgence of feelings of nationalist identity in the Baltic Republics?

They were among the more economically-developed regions of the USSR and their higher levels of education

When were Popular Fronts were established in all three republics?

Between April and October 1988

What did members of the intelligentsia take the lead in?

forming Sajudis (movements), which quickly became mass organisations

What did Popular Fronts call for?

protection for their native languages and cultural traditions - but quickly moved to demanding independence from the Soviet Union

What helped to give the movement in Lithuania strength and unity?

the fact that over 75% of its population were ethnic Lithuanians

What had The Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 resulted in?

the Soviet annexation of the three republics

When was the anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet Pact was used to stage a mass demonstration for independence?

August 1989 - anniversary was used to call for its ending

1989 anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet Pact - what was organised as a show of independence?

A human chain of Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians holding hands was organised that stretched across the three republics

What did the Popular Fronts win in all three Baltic republics in 1990?

won a majority in elections to the Supreme Soviets

Who took the lead in declaring independence from the Soviet Union?

Lithuania - an illegal move and was a direct challenge to the Soviet government

When did the speaker of the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet, Vytautas Landsbergis, proclaim that Lithuania was an independent state?

March 1990 - the other two republics followed soon after

What did the Soviet government refuse to acknowledge?

the declaration of independence

When did pro-Soviet communists, supported by some Red Army troops, attempted to take over the television station in Vilnius?

January 1991

How many did this attempted take over result in - what did it signal the start of?

resulting in at least 13 deaths - seemed to signal the start of a descent into civil war and bloodshed

What did Gorbachev deny giving any orders to the army to use?

to use force and it seems likely that the action was taken by rogue elements in the armed forces and the KGB, who wanted to pressurise Gorbachev into taking a firmer line against the nationalists

How did Gorbachev not bow to this pressure to take a firmer line against the nationalists?

He issued a statement that made it clear that calls for independence would not be prevented, so long as the correct constitutional channels were taken

What was The only other republic where there was a significant nationalist movement?

Georgia - Elsewhere, there was little demand for breaking away from the Soviet Union

What were held in Georgia during 1989?

Huge demonstrations were held in favour of independence

The limits of nationalism: 5?

Limited experience of independence, The Soviet Union had allowed a degree of autonomous control, The republics had been net-gainers of Soviet economic investment, Loyalty to local and tribal groupings and the role of ethnic Russians

Limited experience of independence - issue with the nationalist organisation Rukh was founded in Ukraine?

it had little support in the eastern half of the republic

Limited experience of independence - who had less experience of independence in their history (2)?

Belarussia and the Central Asian republics

What did the Soviet Union allowing a degree of autonomous control accommodate?

the wishes of its national peoples through supporting their languages in schools

What was an advantage for republics retaining the Union?

The republics had been net-gainers of Soviet economic investment, especially for the Central Asian republics

What was often stronger than nationalist sentiment?

Loyalty to local and tribal groupings - any wider national identity was superficial

An example of who Loyalty to local and tribal groupings led to violence between?

led to violence between different Muslim groups, such as Uzbeks and Kirgyz and Uzbeks and Turkmens

What was The nationalist resurgence was complicated by?

the large number of people who did not live in their ethnic homeland

How many Russians lived not in Russia but in the other republics?

60 million

What indicated popular support for maintaining the Soviet Union in all of the republics outside Georgia and the Baltic republics?

A referendum held in March 1991 - 11/15 wanted to stay part of USSR

What did Gorbachev's new Union Treaty of 1991 contain to keep support for a continued union alive?

enough concessions for preserving language and customs in each republic

What was there plenty evidence to indicate the Soviet Union could do?

could survive without the Baltic republics and Georgia - and that the collapse of the Communist Party did not necessarily mean the collapse of the Soviet Union

What ultimately doomed the Soviet Union?

Russian nationalism that doomed the Soviet Union

When was Yeltsin elected Chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet?

March 1990