Psychology 1B - History

Why is scientific observation considered theory-laden?

It involves interpretation shaped by prior understanding and perspective

What challenge arises when observing mental phenomena?

Mental states require theoretical concepts for description and are not directly observable

Why can multiple psychological measures for the same concept be problematic?

Different methods may not be measuring the same underlying construct

What does the principle of convergent operations suggest?

Multiple methods can be used to strengthen the measurement of the same concept

What was a key aim of behaviourism in psychology?

To remove subjectivity by focusing on observable behaviour

Why is replication important in scientific research?

It helps confirm the reliability of findings across different studies

What issue does the replication crisis bring to light?

Many findings may not hold up when studies are repeated

What is a demand characteristic in an experiment?

A subtle cue that may influence participant behaviour

What limitation applies to even well-constructed psychological measurements?

They still depend on theoretical assumptions and interpretation

How is objectivity complicated in psychological research?

Data are shaped by methods, assumptions, and human interactions

In the example of Uranus’ discovery, why was the theory not rejected despite inconsistent observations?

Observations were interpreted through existing theories instead of discarding the model

Why was Neptune not immediately recognised as a planet when first observed?

It was only later interpreted as a planet based on existing theoretical expectations

How are formal psychological concepts developed?

They are constructed from theoretical assumptions and definitions

What is a key challenge in interpreting data in psychology?

Data must be analysed through assumptions and cannot speak for themselves

How did early experimental psychology try to reduce subjectivity?

Defining a concept through the specific operation or method used to measure it

Defining a concept through the specific operation or method used to measure it

They may not be measuring the same underlying thing, leading to confusion

Why is the relationship between concept and measure complex in psychology?

Concepts are abstract, and measures may only partially reflect them

Why is replication used in psychological research?

To test whether results are reliable across repeated observations

What limits the effectiveness of replication?

It depends on interpretation, and there’s no fixed number of required replications

Why are psychological experiments considered socially influenced?

Participants are active agents who may be affected by context and expectations

What are experimenter effects?

Subtle influences from the researcher that may bias the participant’s response

What was a core criticism from the crisis in social psychology?

Experimental methods were limited in validity and real-world relevance

Why is psychological knowledge dependent on description?

The way a phenomenon is conceptualised shapes how it’s measured and understood

Why do psychologists rely on language to study the mind?

Language allows us to describe, define, and measure otherwise invisible mental phenomena

What is the relationship between a psychological description and the thing it describes?

What happens when definitions change over time in psychology?

The object of study changes because the definition determines what is being investigated

What is a risk when using psychological definitions without reflection?

That we may confuse descriptions with the actual phenomena

What is the danger of reification in psychology?

Treating abstract concepts as if they are real, concrete things

How do definitions of different terms like “learning” and “memory” influence research?

They determine how we interpret and study psychological processes

How was “learning” understood prior to its formalisation as a psychological concept?

As conscious processes like training or acquiring knowledge

What shift occurred in the concept of “learning” after WWI?

It became a central focus of psychology, no longer seen as a conscious process

How did behaviourism influence the meaning of “learning”?

It framed learning as observable behavioural change, not mental activity

How did Piaget’s view of learning differ from the behaviourist perspective?

He saw learning as mental development rather than behavioural adaptation

What metaphor has been used to conceptualise memory throughout history?

As inscription or storage, such as wax tablets or computers

What did Ebbinghaus contribute to the study of memory?

He treated memory as measurable performance using meaningless syllables

How did Bartlett’s approach to memory differ from Ebbinghaus’?

He focused on how people distort meaningful narratives rather than recall neutral data

What new developments arose from the information-processing metaphor of memory?

Questions about encoding, retrieval, storage, and system capacity

What does the concept of memory as an “extended mind” suggest?

That memory is influenced by external tools, language, and context beyond the brain

Why are psychological descriptions not considered neutral?

Because they reflect theoretical assumptions and shape how we think about phenomena

What is one key aim of psychology as a science?

To produce valid and reliable knowledge about the mind and behaviour

How do scientific methods shape psychological inquiry?

They determine the kinds of questions asked and the forms answers must take

Why does psychology aim to appear scientific?

To use recognised methods, build credibility, and distinguish from pseudoscience

What role do theoretical frameworks play in psychology?

They guide interpretation, often drawing on biological model

What is boundary-work in psychology?

The attempt to distinguish legitimate science from pseudoscience

How is psychology shaped as a career?

By funding, publication trends, teaching demands, and societal needs

What is often involved in “making a difference” through psychology?

Changing people’s minds and behaviours through knowledge and influence

What does applied psychology aim to do?

Provide useful knowledge that meets practical demands in society

How is psychological knowledge shaped by its audience?

It reflects the needs of institutions like education, business, and government

What role did the Child Study Movement play in early education psychology?

It helped understand children’s minds through observation and testing

How did early mental testing serve educational aims?

It aimed to predict student performance and guide selection

What drove the rise of industrial psychology?

A desire to increase workplace productivity and efficiency

How was advertising influenced by early psychology?

It used suggestion, tested adverts, and helped manufacture desire

What was the purpose of the Psychological Corporation (1921)?

To provide psychological services to industry and business

Why did governments turn to psychology in the early 20th century?

To assist with war-related needs like propaganda, testing, and selection

What was a key government use of psychology during WWI?

Personnel selection through mental testing

How does psychology reflect wider social assumptions?

What was a historical assumption about women reflected in early psychology?

That they were less rational and prone to hysteria

How did women psychologists challenge early scientific assumptions?

By emphasising the role of social factors in behaviour and performance

What racial assumptions were reflected in early psychology?

Beliefs in hierarchical intellect and evolution among races

What was a major shift in psychology by the 1920s regarding race?

Focus moved from ranking to addressing racism as a social issue

How do Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s contributions reflect the aims of psychology?

They used research to challenge assumptions and influence social change