Criminology Discussion Questions

1. Criminology vs. other perspectives?

Criminology uses scientific methods; others (e.g., law, journalism) do not.

2. Study only crimes or also deviance?

Study both—deviance reveals social norms & helps explain crime origins.

3. Juvenile justice system change since 1899?

Yes—shifted from rehab to punishment and back to restorative justice.

4. Is "criminal justice system" an oxymoron?

Possibly—system claims justice but often shows bias or inequality.

5. Most/least important theory traits?

1. Most: Logical consistency, testability, validity

2. Least: Scope, parsimony

6. Behavior predict victimization?

Yes—risky behavior (e.g., nightlife, illegal acts) increases risk.

7. Victim impact statement?

Yes—helps healing and informs sentencing; should be considered.

8. How is UCR data collected?

Law enforcement reports crimes monthly to FBI (via SRS/NIBRS).

9. UCR limitations & fixes?

1. Limitations: Underreporting, hierarchy rule

2. Fixes: NIBRS adds detail, reports all offenses

10. UCR & homicides?

Uses Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)—details victim, offender, weapon.

11. UCR & hate crimes?

Reports motivation, victim type, location, etc., submitted by police.

12. UCR & officers killed/assaulted?

LEOKA collects details (duty status, weapon, circumstances).

13. SRS vs. NIBRS?

NIBRS = more detail, no hierarchy rule, wider crime range.

14. How NCVS tracks unreported crime?

Surveys households about crimes, even if not reported to police.

15. UCR vs. NCVS?

UCR = police data, NCVS = victim surveys (includes unreported)

16. Self-report vs. UCR?

Self-report = offenders' admissions; captures hidden crimes.

17. Best crime data source?

Use UCR, NCVS, and self-reports together for full picture.

18. Pre- vs. Enlightenment crime views?

1. Pre: Sin/demons

2. Enlightenment: Rational choice, fair laws

19. Most important Enlightenment idea?

Proportional punishment—punishment matches the crime.

20. Modern violations of Enlightenment ideas?

Harsh mandatory minimums, detention without trial.

21. Beccaria's least/most practical reform?

1. Most: Swift/certain punishment

2. Least: Total rejection of death penalty

22. Most/least important deterrence part?

1. Most: Certainty

2. Least: Severity

23. Agree with Beccaria on death penalty?

Yes—data shows it's not a better deterrent than life sentences.

24. General vs. Specific deterrence?

1. General = deter public (e.g., DUI laws)

2. Specific = deter offender (e.g., license revoked)

25. Classical vs. Neoclassical School?

Neoclassical adds individual factors (e.g., intent); more flexible.

26. Modern policies from Beccaria/Bentham?

Fair sentencing, no torture, anti-death penalty, utilitarian justice.

27. Should deterrence theory have been revived?

Yes—new research + policy needs support; still useful with updates.

28. Is aggregate deterrence research valid?

Somewhat—shows trends, but lacks individual detail.

29. Best method: longitudinal, vignette, or VR?

VR—most realistic & controlled; reflects actual decisions better.

30. Experiential effect?

1. People change risk perception after experience (e.g., speeding without getting caught).

2. Many ignore laws after repeated success avoiding punishment..

31. Formal vs. informal sanctions—shoplifting?

Prefer formal (no one finds out)—social judgment can be worse than legal punishment.

32. "Rush" from deviance as a teen?

Yes—thrill often outweighed fear of consequences.

33. Community hot spots?

Examples: bars, gas stations, parks at night. Police patrol & avoidance help, but effects vary.

34. Most important element in hot spot crime?

Lack of capable guardians—more enforcement = less opportunity.

35. Risky lifestyle factors?

Partying/nightlife, Drug use, Delinquent friends, Unstable housing, Lack of supervision

36. Study using GPS/mapping data?

Example: Crime clusters near liquor stores. Fits routine activities theory—places, people, and opportunity matter.

37. Best crime prevention strategies (RCT/RAT)?

1. Best: Target hardening (CCTV, lighting)

2. Least: Harsh punishments—don't stop crime if certainty is low.

38. Positive vs. Classical School?

1. Classical: Free will, rational choice

2. Positive: Determinism, biology/environment

39. Early positivistic theories (pre-Darwin)?

Phrenology: Skull shape = traits,

Physiognomy: Facial features = character,

Craniometry: Brain size = intelligence.

Valid today? Mostly discredited, but sparked scientific focus.

40. Why weren't early positivist theories popular?

Often racist/classist, unscientific methods. Yes, explains why biology was ignored later.

41. Lombroso's theory—least/most valid?

1. Least: "Born criminals" with stigmata

2. Most: Some traits may influence behavior (e.g., impulsivity)

42. Is your IQ score a fair measure?

Often no—can reflect education, environment, Feeble-mindedness theory = flawed, discriminatory

43. Low verbal IQ = more crime? Examples?

Yes—poor communication can lead to frustration, bad choices. Seen in school conflicts, dropouts, peer issues

44. Sheldon's body types—valid/invalid?

1. Valid: Some correlation between mesomorphs & crime

2. Invalid: Stereotypes, ignores environment

47. Are positive theories useful today?

Yes—biology, IQ, traits add insight, but should be combined with social/environmental factors

48. What policies would you implement?

Early intervention for low verbal skills, Mental health support.

49. Are family studies valid for genetic influence?

Somewhat—crime runs in families, but can't separate genes from environment

50. Twin studies rationale & results?

Compare identical vs. fraternal twins = Higher concordance in identical = genetics matter.

Criticism: same environment, not pure genetics

51. Adoption studies rationale & results?

1. Compare adopted kids' behavior to bio & adoptive parents.

2. Criminality strongest when both parents are criminal.

3. Criticism: Adoption isn't random; environment still matters.

52. Twins separated at birth—findings?

1. Similar traits/criminal tendencies = genetic influence,

2. Criticism: still shared prenatal and selective adoption environments.

53. Cytogenetic disorders & crime?

Extra Y chromosome (XYY) linked to crime, Traits: tall, low IQ, impulsive = higher crime risk.

54. Hormones linked to crime?

1. Testosterone ↑ = aggression/violence

2. Cortisol ↓ = less fear, more risk-taking

55. Neurotransmitters & crime?

1. Low serotonin = poor impulse control

2. High dopamine = thrill-seeking, aggression

56. Brain areas tied to criminal behavior?

Frontal lobe & temporal lobe = key areas.

Damage = poor judgment, impulse control, emotion regulation

57. Brain waves: criminals vs. non-criminals?

Criminals: slower waves, low arousal. Fits biosocial theory—less stimulation → more risk-seeking

58. Autonomic nervous system differences?

Criminals: low arousal, low fear/anxiety.

Biosocial theory: harder to condition with punishment

59. Policy ideas based on biosocial studies?

Early health screenings, parenting classes. Hormone & behavior monitoring.

60. Freud's psychoanalytic theory—key ideas?

Id = instincts

Ego = reality

Superego = morals

Crime = weak superego or unresolved childhood conflict

61. Aichhorn's use of Freud for juveniles?

Unmet needs + trauma = unconscious criminal behavior. Focused on treatment & prevention, not punishment.

62. What is the PEN model?

Personality theory by Eysenck.

P = Psychoticism

E = Extraversion

N = Neuroticism.

63. Levels of moral development (Kohlberg)?

1. Pre-conventional: avoid punishment

2. Conventional: follow rules

3. Post-conventional: personal ethics. Offenders often stuck in lower levels.

64. Attachment theory basics?

Secure attachment → better behavior. Weak/no attachment = higher crime risk.

65. Intelligence & crime issues?

Low IQ linked to crime, esp. verbal IQ

66. Wilson & Herrnstein's 3 crime factors?

1️. Social environment

2️. Family & biology

3️. Decision-making (cost/benefit).

67. Psychopath vs. regular offender?

Psychopath: no empathy, manipulative, charming. Other offenders: may feel guilt or regret.

68. Insanity defenses—4 main tests?

1. M'Naghten: Didn't know right from wrong

2. Irresistible impulse: Couldn't control behavior

3. Durham: Crime was product of mental illness

4. ALI/MPC: Lacked capacity to understand or control act.

69. Sociological vs. biological/psychological positivism?

1. Sociological = environment/society causes crime

2. Biological = genes/physical traits

3. Psychological = personality/mental processes.

70. Most influential early sociological positivist?

Émile Durkheim: anomie = normlessness → crime.

Still relevant in explaining crime during social change.

71. Modern examples of mechanical societies?

Amish, tribal groups = shared values, simple jobs. Likely less crime, but harsh response to deviance.

73. People in Cohen's status frustration model?

Felt left out due to lack of status, responded by rebelling, forming deviant groups.

74. Cloward & Ohlin: your neighborhood?

1. Disorganized = limited legit + criminal paths

2. Gang types: Criminal, Conflict, Retreatist

3. Can relate if peers turned to gangs for status/opportunity

76. Ecological principles example (not from book)?

Kudzu plant in the U.S. South

1. Invasion: spread rapidly

2. Domination: overgrows native plants

3. Succession: alters the ecosystem.

77. Shaw & McKay city zones example?

Many cities show:

Zone 1: Downtown/central business

Zone 2: Old housing, low-income (transition zone)

Zone 3: Working-class neighborhoods

Zone 4+: Suburbs (residential, commuter).

78. Organization & disorganization in your area?

1. Organization: community events, local patrols, neighborhood watch.

2. Disorganization: vandalism, vacant homes, poor schools, lack of resources

79. Modern-day U.S. cultures/subcultures?

1. Cultures: Southern, Midwestern, West Coast.

2. Subcultures: Hip-hop, biker gangs, street racing, prison culture.

3. High-crime cultures often in urban, economically disadvantaged areas

80. People who show Miller's focal concerns?

Toughness, smartness, street smarts, fate, excitement, autonomy. Often young, male, lower SES, urban. Seen in street cultures, some peer groups.

81. Know anyone fitting Ferracuti/Wolfgang or Anderson's street code?

1. Individuals who view violence as a way to gain respect.

2. Live in inner-city neighborhoods.

3. Value respect, reputation, and retaliation.

4. Matches Anderson's "Code of the Street"

82. What makes learning theories unique?

Crime is learned through interactions, not inborn or rational.

83. Differential association vs. differential reinforcement?

1. Association: learn from peers.

2. Reinforcement: behavior is shaped by rewards/punishments

84. What did differential identification add?

Learning occurs by identifying with role models, not just direct contact.

85. Most relatable neutralization technique?

Ex: Denial of responsibility - "It wasn't my fault!"

86. Least valid neutralization technique?

Condemning the condemners - blaming others feels like excuse-making.

89. Know someone with low self-control?

Yes - impulsive, risk-taking, short-term focus.

90. Which low self-control traits fit you?

Ex: Impatience, seeking thrills, easily bored.

91. Matza's drift theory - relate to it?

Yes - teens may drift in/out of delinquency during low social control periods.

92. Major assumptions of labeling theory?

Society labels people → labels shape identity → leads to more deviance.

93. Lemert: How does someone become deviant?

1. Primary deviance: minor act

2. Label applied

3. Secondary deviance: person accepts label, continues deviance.

94. Becker: What behaviors are misjudged by society?

1. Falsely accused (obey law but labeled deviant)

2. Secret deviant (break law but not caught)

95. Is labeling a theory or perspective?

A perspective - explains how reactions to behavior affect deviance.

96. Consensus vs. conflict models of law?

1. Consensus: laws reflect shared values

2. Conflict: laws reflect power struggles

97. Marxist view on crime?

Crime stems from class conflict, inequality, and capitalist exploitation.

98. Limitations of conflict theories?

Too focused on economics, vague, lacks solutions, not all crime is class-based.

99. Peacemaking criminology features?

Focus on compassion, nonviolence, social justice, healing—not punishment.

100. How restorative justice includes all parties?

Brings together: Offender (accountability), Victim (healing), and Community (support, reintegration).

101. Policies reflecting labeling/conflict theories?

Diversion programs, Decriminalization, Restorative justice circles, Youth intervention initiatives

102. First, second, and third waves of feminism?

1. First wave: legal rights (voting, property)

2. Second wave: equality in workplace, law, sexuality

3. Third wave: diversity, intersectionality, individualism

103. Key feminist perspectives?

1. Liberal: gender equality in law/society

2. Radical: patriarchy = root of oppression

3. Marxist/Socialist: class + gender = oppression

4. Postmodern: challenges universal truths

5. Intersectional: race, class, and gender linked.

104. Traditional theories on female offenders?

Saw women as "mad" or "bad"; ignored gender context, based on male norms.

105. Problems with traditional research on gender?

Male-centered bias, ignores gendered experiences, overlooks power dynamics.

106. Key feminist concepts?

Patriarchy, gender roles, intersectionality, victimization, empowerment