Discovery + Exploration

3 Sister Crops

helped eachother grow, building a self-sufficient ecosystem

• corn- structure for beans to grow on

• beans- capture nitrogen from the air to help nourish the corn

• squash

Encomienda System

system where Spanish settlers (encomenderos) were given groups of Natives to “protect” and convert to Christianity

• in return, Natives would work on mining/agriculture

• caused massive Native population decline

• 16th century, restricted by New Laws of 1542

Asiento System

system of using African slaves rather than Native Americans

• after New Laws of 1542

• in Spanish colonies

• growth of Transatlantic Slave Trade

Bering Land Bridge

connected Asia + North America during Ice Age

• crossed by early peoples to get to the Americas

• submerged with the higher sea levels after the Ice Age

Adena-Hopewell

• group of mound builders in the Ohio River Valley from 700 BC-500 AD

• known for constructing ceremonial + burial earth mounds

• produced intricate pottery + jewelry

• extensive trade network/routes

Hokokam

• located in present day Arizona

• created sophisticated irrigation systems → farmed maize, beans, and squash (3 sister crops)

• formed intricate pottery

• declined in 15th century

Anasazi

• lived in 4 corners region (AZ, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah)

• declined in late 13th century → environmental + social factors

• architectural achievements: cliff dwellings, multi-room pueblos, dry farming

Pueblos

• 300 BC- 1300 CE

• southwestern US, especially New Mexico + AZ

• maintained cultural traditions + practices → communal societies

• created adobe + stone villages

• advanced irrigation systems

Lakota Sioux

located primarily in northern central parts of modern day U.S. (Great Plains)

• lived a nomadic lifestyle → followed buffalo herds

• became skilled horsemen after Europeans introduced them (early 18th century)

• known for strong resistance to U.S. gov. policies

Mayas

advanced society that developed calendars, pyramids, and hieroglyphic writing systems

• lived in Southern America (Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador)

• city-state system

• skilled astronomers

• declined around the 9th century

Incas

• located in Western South America (Peru)

• achievements: road networks, agricultural terraces, skilled in medicine

• centralized empire

• conquered by Spanish in 16th century

Aztecs

located in central Mexico, the capital Tenochtitlan

• achievements: temples, engineering

• rich culture with a hierarchical system (Emperor + subjects)

• conquered by Spanish in 1521 (Hernan Cortes)

Conquistadores

Spanish explorers who conquered lands in Americas (1490s-1550s)

• driven by the 3 Gs (promises of wealth/titles)

• led to the fall of Native American tribes + establishment of Spanish colonies

New Laws of 1542

prohibited slavery of Native Americans

• decreed Natives as “free people” due to their population decline + extreme exploitation

• opposed by colonists who relied on them for slavery

• led to acceleration of African labor

Ferdinand & Isabella

monarchs of Spain who sponsored Columbus’ voyages

• unified Spain through their marriage

• support of explorers led to early Spanish dominance in Americas

Iroquois Confederation

alliance between 6 Native American tribes in the Northeastern U.S.

• developed political system + council

• played a key role in regional diplomacy/conflicts

Meso America

region from Central Mexico to Central America

• home to Olmec, Maya, Aztec (advanced civilizations)

• agriculture-based → developed complex farming techniques and crops like maize

Montezuma

Aztec emperor when conquered by Hernan Cortes

• initially welcomed the Spanish, but was taken captive

• died under uncertain circumsatnces during conquest

Gold Coast

region along the West African coast

• very rich in gold resources

• major trade center for European traders seeking gold + slaves

• later colonized by European powers (Portugal + Britain)

San Salvador

island in the Bahamas that Columbus landed on in 1st voyage

• name means “Holy Savior”

• marked beginning of European exploration

Northwest Passage

sought by explorers as a direct water route from North America to Asia

• connected pacific + atlantic coasts

• difficult to find → ice + difficult navigation

• found only in 1906

Columbian Exchange

Old World- gave disease, livestock, plants

New World- gave staple crops (maize + potatoes) + cash crops (tobacco, sugar)

Norse Voyages

Scandinavian vikings who explored + settled in parts of North America around 100 AD

• established temporary colonies like Vinland → didn’t last very long

• first ones to actually explore America

Pope’s Rebellion

1680 revolt by Pueblo Indians against Spanish colonization in New Mexico

• temporary expelled Spanish settlers + restored Native traditions

• driven by resentment of Spanish rule

Bartolome de Las Casas

Spaniard who pushed King to pass New Laws of 1542

• advocated for Native American rights → criticized Spanish policies

• participated in the Valladolid debate

Valladolid Debate

Bartolome de Las Casas v. Juan Gines de Supulveda

• Bartolome → argued that Native American slavery should end

• Supulveda → argued that they should be kept as slaves

• no real outcome but influenced New Laws of 1542

French Relations w/Native Americans

relations were much better than other Europeans’ relations with Native Americans

• saw them as allies → no large-scale colonization

• largely traded fur with them

3 Gs

• God- spreading Christianity by converting Natives and spreading missionaries

• Gold- desire for wealth/new materials (especially gold/silver)

• Glory- personal fame for explorers

Maize

staple Native American crop

• convenient → grows in large quantities + adapts to various climates

• caused larger/more complex civilizations

• originally in South America (Mexico) → caused them to have a more advanced civilization compared to North America tribes

Horses

brought by Europeans to Native Americans

• changed/improved Native lifestyles (especially for Plains tribes)

• created nomadic traditions

Hernan Cortes

led the expedition that caused downfall of Aztec empire

• formed alliances with rival Native groups

• established Spanish dominance over Mexico

Francisco Pizarro

conquered the Inca empire in South America

• used deceit + strategy to capture Inca ruler Atahualpa

• paved way for Spanish colonization of Peru

New Inventions for Sailors

• compass: enabled more accurate navigation on the sea

• astrolabe: allowed sailors to determine latitude

• caravel: improved ship design for long voyages

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who promoted exploration along the African coast

• established a center for maritime studies and mapmaking

• helped lay groundwork for Age of Exploration

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer sponsored by monarchs of Spain

• completed 4 voyages across Atlantic

• opened up Americas to exploration + European colonizaton

• originally looking for a westward sea route to Asia → ended up in Bahamas

Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) agreement that divided newly discovered lands between Spain + Portugal

• Spain- got lands West of the line (most of Americas)

• Portugal- got lands East of the line (Africa, Asia, Brazil)

Long Boats

large, multi-family homes used by some tribes (especially Iroquois)

• made from wooden frames

• served as center of community + social life

John Cabot

Italian explorer that sailed under English flag

• explored parts of North America’s east coast → claimed it for England

• contributed to England’s later claims in New World

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who found St. Lawrence River (Canada)

• laid foundation for French claims in Canda

• established early contact with Native Americans

Samuel de Champlain

“Father of New France” → founded Quebec City in 1608

• mapped + explored large parts of North America

• allied with many Native American tribes

Henry Hudson

English navigator who explored Hudson River + Hudson Bay

• sought Northwest Passage to Asia

Juan Gines de Sepulveda

Spanish scholar who justified treatment (abuse) of Native Americans

• participated in Valladolid debate against Bartolome de las Casas

Hispaniola

island located in the Caribbean

• now divided between Haiti + DR

• one of the 1st areas settled by Columbus/Spanish settlers

• major center for sugar plantations + slave labor

Mississippians

Native American civilization known for mound-building practices

• developed complex chiefdoms + large urban centers

North American Indians (religion, gender, society, war/politics)

• gender roles: varied among tribes → matrilineal/patrilineal societies

• society: organized into clans, tribes, and confederacies

• religion: polytheistic beliefs, very spiritual with focuses on nature

• war: regularly in conflicts with other tribes

• leaders: chiefs + councils

Juan Ponce de Leon

Spanish conquistador who led expeditions in Florida + Carribbean

• searched for the mythic “Fountain of Youth”

• credited with discovery of Florida in 1513

Hernan de Soto

explorer who led expeditions through the southeastern United States

• 1st European to document + cross Mississippi River

• expeditions were marked by violent conflict with tribes

Thomas Harriot, Briefe and True Reports

Thomas Harriot- author of early account of English attempt to colonize Roanoke

• detailed environment, resources, native peoples

Jesuits in New France

Catholic priests who converted + educated Native Americans

• established missions + schools in French territories

• intermediaries between French colonists + Native Americans