AP Psychology unit 6-10

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

social comparison

the process of evaluating oneself against others to gain an understanding of one’s own abilities, opinions, and social status. Social comparison can be upward, where one compares themselves to someone deemed better, leading to feelings of inadequacy or motivation, or downward, where one compares to those less fortunate, which can enhance self-esteem.

attribution

how we explain the causes of events

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others’ behavior).

self-serving bias

We also are sensitive to the power of the situation when we have prior experience to draw on

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotypes

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

discriminate

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

ingroup

“us” — people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

“them” — those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

ethnocentrism

the tendency to view our own ethnic or racial group as superior. We recognize how greatly we differ from other individuals in our groups. But we overestimate the extent to which members of other groups are alike

outgroup homogeneity

uniformity of attitudes, personality, and appearance

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

heuristic

mental shortcuts that enable snap judgments

availability heuristic

the tendency to estimate the frequency of an event by how readily it comes to mind

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

attitudes-follow-behavior principle

the concept that our actions can influence and shape our attitudes. If we act in a certain way, we may start to develop feelings or beliefs that match that behavior.

persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

Peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

central route persusasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

prosocial behavior

behavior that intends to help or benefit someone

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.

reward theory of attraction

We will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able and willing to help us achieve our goals

norms

a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior in individual and social situations.

social contagion

the spontaneous spread of behaviors.

chameleon effect

the tendency to mimic the behaviors, mannerisms, or emotional expressions of others around us, often unconsciously. This helps facilitate social interaction and create bonds with others.

empathize

to feel what others are feeling

mood linkage

the sharing of moods

positive herding phenomenon

he tendency for people to follow the actions of others because they believe that those actions are correct or beneficial. This means that if you see many people doing something, you are likely to do it too, thinking it's a good choice.

when great reviews of a movie or product generate more positive reviews

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

obedience

complying with an order or a command

cognitive dissonance

the discomfort they felt when their actions conflicted with their attitudes

minority influence

the way in which a smaller group of people can impact or change the beliefs and behaviors of a larger group. Even if they are outnumbered, their different views can lead others to rethink their own opinions.

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

the tendency for group discussions to intensify the initial, average opinions of members

false-news phenomenon

the deliberate creation and dissemination of fabricated information, disguised as legitimate news, to mislead audiences for political or financial gain, particularly via social media. It thrives on emotional appeal and confirmation bias, spreading faster than truth and threatening democratic processes, public health, and societal trust.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

tight cultures

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

loose cultures

a place with flexible and informal norms.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

diffusion of responsibility

more people shared responsibility for helping any single listener was less likely to help

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help.

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

social traps

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

self-fulfilling prophecies

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

general intelligence

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.It is often referred to as "g" and represents a person's overall mental capacity.

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc.

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

a model of intelligence that comprises three elements: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

analytical intelligence

the ability to analyze, evaluate, and compare information effectively; often measured by traditional IQ tests.

creative intelligence

the capacity to generate novel ideas, think outside the box, and solve problems in innovative ways.

practical intelligence

the ability to apply knowledge and skills in real-world situations, often involving common sense and street smarts.

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

visual spatial intelligence

the capacity to think in three dimensions, allowing individuals to visualize and manipulate objects in space.

linguistic verbal intelligence

the ability to use language effectively for communication, often involving skills in reading, writing, and speaking.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

The ability to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. This type of intelligence is often associated with skills in math, logic, and scientific reasoning.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

the ability to use one's body effectively for expression, physical coordination, and control.

Musical Intelligence

the ability to understand, create, and appreciate musical concepts and expressions.

Interpersonal Intelligence

the ability to understand and interact effectively with others, including recognizing feelings, motivations, and desires.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

the ability to understand oneself, including one's thoughts, emotions, and motivations, and to use this knowledge for self-regulation and personal growth.

naturalistic intelligence

the ability to observe, understand, and interact with the natural environment, including plants, animals, and ecosystems.

Existential Intelligence

the ability to tackle deep questions about human existence, including the meaning of life, death, and the nature of reality.

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

achievement tests

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

aptitude tests

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

stanford-binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

psychometric

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. (Also called a normal distribution.)

flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also predictive validity.)

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.