LS 7C Midterm 1 Learning Objectives

Discuss how a signal can lead to both short- and long-term responses

Signaling cell —> signaling molecule —> receptor protein —> responding

Signal binds and receptor is activated

(conformational change)

Signal transduction— one molecule activates

the next

Response— enzyme activation, turn on genes,

signal other cells, cause transcription of

proteins

Receptor Kinase activity because changes gene expression=> long-term

G-Protein-coupled receptor and ion channel receptors=> short term

Long

Transported by the circulatory system

example: Endocrine Signaling: Adrenaline,

estrogen and testosterone

Short

Moves by diffusion

Example: Paracrine— two cells close to one

another: Small, water-soluble molecule (i.e.

growth factor)

Autocrine signaling-Signaling molecule

released by a cell and binds to receptors on the

same cell: When an embryo specializes cell

types, this can reinforce this decision

Cell-to-cell contact: signaling molecule is not

actually released from the cell, transmembrane

protein

When the two cells are far apart, the signaling molecule is transported by the circulatory system. When they are close, the signaling molecule simply moves by diffusion. Many cells in multicellular organisms are physically attached to one another; in this case, the signaling molecule is not released from the signaling cell at all.

Short Term Response:

● Paracrine signaling: Signaling molecules travel a short distance to the nearest neighboring cell to bind its receptor and deliver its message.

■ In paracrine signaling, the signal is usually a small, water-soluble molecule such as a growth factor. ​A growth factor is a group of small, soluble molecules that affect cell growth, cell division, and cause changes in gene expression. Growth factors ​help shape

the structure of an adult's tissues, organs, and limbs.

● Autocrine signaling: Signaling between different parts of a cell; the signaling cell and the responding cell are one and

the same.

■ Can be used by cancer cells to promote cell division.

● Cell-cell contact: A cell can communicate with another cell through direct contact, without diffusion or circulation

of the signaling molecule. This form of signaling requires that the two communicating cells be in physical contact with each other.

■ A transmembrane protein on the surface of one cell acts as the signaling molecule, and a transmembrane protein on the surface of an adjacent cell acts as the receptor. The signaling molecule is not released from the cell, but instead remains associated with the plasma membrane of the signaling cell.

Long-term response:

● Endocrine signaling: Signaling molecules travel through the bloodstream.

Describe the mechanism of action for a receptor tyrosine kinase pathway

Responses from receptor kinases tend to involve changes in gene expression, which allow cells to grow, divide, differentiate, or change shape LONG TERM CHANGES

Each kinase activates the next and so one signal can cause a prolonged response

A tyrosine kinase pathway:

■ Receptor kinases bind signaling molecules, dimerize, phosphorylate each other, and activate intracellular signal

molecules.

1. Inactive receptor:

a. The signal molecules bind to the

extracellular portion of the receptor.

2. Dimerization:

a. Causes a conformational change in the

cytoplasmic domain which activates the

tyrosine kinase catalytic activity.

b. ATP is converted to ADP in this process.

3. Active receptor:

a. The conversion of ATP to ADP allows each

member of the receptor pair to attach

phosphate groups to one another; in other

words, phosphorylation occurs.

4. These phosphate groups provide binding sites for intracellular signaling proteins, which activate them.

Define the role of kinases and phosphatases in cell signaling pathways

Kinases— enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a substrate (phosphorylation), which activates the protein

Phosphotases— remove a phosphate group (dephosphorylation), and protein becomes inactive

○ Kinase:

■ an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a substrate. To catalyze this reaction, it

binds both ATP and the substrate. This process is called phosphorylation.

● When ​a protein​ is phosphorylated by a kinase, it ​becomes active and is switched on​. The addition of a phosphate group to a protein can activate it by

altering its shape or providing a new site for other proteins to bind.

○ Phosphatase:

■ removes a phosphate group, a process called dephosphorylation.

● When ​a protein​ is dephosphorylated by a phosphatase, it typically​ becomes inactive and is switched off​.

Distinguish the potential for differentiation of totipotent, pluripotent, and multipotent stem cells

Totipotent— can give rise to a complete organism (most potential)

Pluripotent— can become any of the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm). (Less potential)

Multipotent— can form a limited number of specialized cells (least potential)

Evaluate why diffusion and surface area limit cell size and its implications for large, multicellular organisms

cells can't get too big or else the volume to surface area is decreased and there is less surface area to absorb/diffuse. Waste removal faster in small cell. Implications: lots of little cells for large, multicellular organism.

As volume increases, surface area decreases

Cells that are bigger need more nutrients, so as gets bigger can't hold much nutrients and the ability to discard waste is reduced

Determine if certain proteins in a signaling pathway function as phosphatases, kinases, or neither

On handout

If it adds a phosphate group and activates protein, then it is a kinase

If it removes phosphate and deactivates the protein, then it is a phosphatase

If it does neither, then it is neither

Kinases activate other proteins by phosphorylating them (signal transduction)

Phosphatases deactivate other proteins by de-phosphorylating them (termination)

Explain how a signal transduction pathway can be turned off

■ The length of time a signaling molecule remains bound to its receptor depends on how tightly the receptor holds on to it, a property called binding affinity.

■ G proteins can catalyze the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP and inorganic phosphate. This means that an active, GTP-bound α subunit in the "on" position automatically turns itself "off" by converting GTP to GDP. In fact, the α subunit converts GTP to GDP almost as soon as a molecule of GTP binds to it. Without an active receptor to generate more active G protein α subunits, transmission of the signal quickly comes to a halt.

■ Farther down the pathway, an enzyme converts the second messenger cAMP to AMP, which no longer activates protein kinase A.

■ Phosphatases remove the phosphate groups added by PKA, inactivating PKA's target proteins.

Termination:

Binding affinity (ligand is released from receptor)

Phosphatases remove phosphate groups de-activating proteins

G-protein converts GTP back to GDP

Enzymes degrade cAMP

Predict the effect of altering part of a signal transduction pathway

When one part of the signal transduction pathway is altered, it affects everything else downstream

Interpret data related to different types of cell signaling pathways

cell signal (ligand) => receptor activation => signal transduction => response => termination

Paracrine signaling: short distance (diffusion)

Synaptic signaling: short distance (ligands are neurotransmitters)

Autocrine signaling: cell signals to itself

Endocrine: signals release through bloodstream

cell-to-cell contact: stuck together, signal can be a transmembrane protein

Hydrophobic signaling molecules can diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to internal receptors.

Hydrophilic molecules are unable to pass through the plasma membrane due to their polarity and must bind to an

extracellular domain of a cell-surface receptor.

Predict cell fate based on cell activation of signaling pathways

Worksheet

there could be signals that only activate certain genes that limits what the cells can differentiate to

Describe the different types of cell-cell junctions

Cell-cell junctions (inside the cell):

■ Cell junctions physically connect one cell to the next and anchor cells to the extracellular matrix

■ Adherens junctions and desmosomes provide strong attachments between cells, but they do not prevent materials from passing freely through the spaces between the cells like tight junctions do.

● Tight junctions: A junctional complex that establishes a seal between cells so that the only way a substance can travel from one side of a sheet of epithelial cells to the other is by moving through the cells by a cellular transport mechanism. In other words, ​tight junctions prevent transport of material in between the membranes of the cell​.

● Adherens junctions: A beltlike junctional complex composed of cadherins that attaches a band of actin to the plasma membrane. => The cadherins in the adherens junction of one cell attach to the cadherins in the adherens junctions of adjacent cells. This arrangement establishes a physical connection among the actin cytoskeletons of all cells present in an epithelial layer of cells.

● Desmosome: A buttonlike point of adhesion that holds the plasma membranes of adjacent cells together. In other words, they ​allow cells to adhere to one another.

■ Cadherins are at work here, too, strengthening the connection between cells in a manner

similar to adherens junctions. Cadherins in the desmosome of one cell bind to cadherins in the desmosomes of adjacent cells. The cytoplasmic domain of these cadherins connects to intermediate filaments in the cytoskeleton. This second type of physical connection among neighboring cells greatly enhances the structural integrity of epithelial cell layers.

● Gap junctions:A type of connection between the plasma membranes of adjacent animal cells that permits materials to pass directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of another. Gap junctions are a complex of integral membrane proteins called connexons arranged in

a ring. The ring of connexin proteins connects to a similar ring of proteins in the membrane of an adjacent cell. Ions and signaling molecules pass through these junctions, allowing cells to communicate

The extracellular matrix (outside the cell):

■ Hemidesmosomes: A type of desmosome in which ​integrins are the prominent cell adhesion molecules. The extracellular domains bind extracellular matrix proteins, and the cytoplasmic domains connect to intermediate filaments. These intermediate filaments connect to desmosomes in other parts of the plasma membrane. The result is a firmly anchored and reinforced layer of cells.

Define microtubule, microfilament, and intermediate filament.

Microtubule: A hollow, ​tubelike polymer of tubulin dimers that helps make up the cytoskeleton.

Function: maintain cell shape and the cell's internal structure, part of cell division (chromosome segregation), movement (cilia and flagella), and vesicle transport

Microfilament: A helical polymer of actin monomers, present in various locations in the cytoplasm​, that helps make up the cytoskeleton.

Function: maintain cell shape and the cell's internal structure, part of cell division (cytokinesis), movement (crawling), and vesicle transport

Intermediate filament:A polymer of proteins​, which vary according to cell type, ​that combine to form strong, cable-like filaments that provide animal cells with mechanical strength.

Function: cell shape and support, strength and support to tissues under stress (skin and intestine)

Explain how motor proteins actively move material around the cell

Kinesin and dynein associate with microtubules

Kinesin— transports towards plus end of

microtubule. A motor protein, similar in

structure to myosin, that transports cargo

toward the plus end of

microtubules.

Dynein— away from plasma membrane, towards

minus end. A motor protein that carries cargo

away from the plasma membrane toward the

minus ends of microtubules.

Driven by conformational changes and ATP

Microtubules are found in cilia and flagella

Microfilaments associate with with motor proteins

Actin microfilaments and myosin transport in

vesicles. Moving actin filaments inside muscle cells cause muscle contraction.

Explain how cell-cell junctions and the extracellular matrix (ECM) contribute to cells' ability to form tissues and organs

Junctions allow structure and stability by adhere functions and desmosomes, allowing cells to form together by cadherins.

■ Tight junctions form shape as they separate cells from cells and create a barrier.

■ While gap junctions allow molecules and signals to pass, allowing the cell to function.

Extracellular matrix fibrous proteins function as holding cells together, form/properties, filter material passing through tissues, helps orient cell movement, chemical signaling.

■ Mutation in function of the extracellular matrix causes fragile tissues.

Cell adhesion molecules— attach cells to one another or to the extracellular matrix

Cadherins— cells to other cells (must be same

type of cadherin)

Integrins— cells to extracellular matrix

Transmembrane, link to microfilaments or

intermediate filaments

Tight junctions— establish a seal between cells so that only way a substance can travel from one to the other is through cell transport mechanisms

Gap junctions— permit materials to pass directly from one cytoplasm to the other

Extracellular matrix: Basal lamina— present beneath all epithelial tissue, provides foundation => provides strength

Evaluate how changing components of the cytoskeleton would change cell structure (shape) and/or function (i.e., motility)

The cytoskeleton:

■ In eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells maintain their shape and serves as a network of tracks for the movement of substances within cells.

■ There are three groups of movers, the motor proteins: kinesin, dynein and myosin, and three main groups of shapers, the protein filaments: microtubules, intermediate filaments and actin filaments.

■ The protein fibers of the cytoskeleton provide internal support for cells.

All eukaryotic cells have at least two

cytoskeletal elements, microtubules and

microfilaments.

Animal cells have a third element, intermediate

filaments.

All three of these cytoskeletal elements are long chains, or polymers, made up of protein subunits.

In addition to providing structural support, microtubules and microfilaments enable the movement of substances within cells as well as changes in cell shape.

Altered activity of motor proteins can lead to build-up or loss of cellular components

Evaluate the effect of modifying cell-cell junctions or ECM components on tissue structure and function

If you compromise the ECM then your skin or epithelial tissues will not have strength in presence of pressure/stress => bed sores

If adherens or desmosome => no cell to cell adhesion

If hemidemosome => then cell can't connect to extracellular matrix

If tight junction => then there would be no boundary for the skin, intestine, stomach, bladder => and molecules can go right through, there would be no seal

Describe the general structure of a neuron

Types of neurons:

Sensory neuron - receives info from stimulus and send to interneurons

Interneuron - received info from sensory neurons and transmits it to motor neurons

Motor Neuron - receive info from interneuron, effects response in body

Relate the structural features of a neuron (i.e., dendrites, axons) to their functions.

Dendrite - receives stimulus from presynaptic neuron. Receives signals from other nerves, input end of the nerve cell

cell body: Junction where signal pass from

dendrite to axon hillock

Axon Hillock - start of action potential. Point where signals are summed if sum is high enough an action potential gets fired

Axon - action potential travels down axon. Transmits signals away from nerves cell body

Myelin sheath - insulate neuron → saltatory propagation. As, result action potentials "jump" from node to node increasing speed of conduction.

Nodes of Ranvier - exposed sites (lots of ion channels). Exposed axon membrane sites between myelin sheaths. Concentrated with voltage-gated Na+/K+ channels

Axon terminal - release neurotransmitters

Explain membrane potential and how it arises in both neuronal and non-neuronal cells

Membrane potential - measurement of charge difference between the inside and the outside of a neuron (differences in ion concentration)

In neurons, resting potential is -70mV (more positive on outside)

More Na+ outside, and more K+ inside (K+ leaks out)

Refers to negative voltage across membrane at rest, mainly due to K+ leak channels and the negatively charged proteins inside the cell membrane compared to positive outside membrane. Also, due to sodium potassium pump, that removes 3 Na+ for 2 K+, so makes it less positive inside.

Explain the process by which an action potential is generated and propagated

Summed or spatial EPSPs (graded potential) → depolarization in dendrites → depolarization at axon hillock → opening of Na+ voltage-gated channels (QUICKLY) and K+ voltage-gated channels (SLOWLY) → Na+ ions rush in (major depolarization), few K+ leave → Voltage reaches +40mV → Na+ channels shut, K+ channels remain open → K+ ions leave cell → cell becomes more negative (repolarization) → Hyperpolarization → refractory period (no A.P) → pumps return membrane to resting potential by pumping out Na+ and pumping on K+

Compare and contrast ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion channels with respect to their role in signal transduction in a neuron

Ligand-gated ion channel - opens when ligand binds (at synapse w/ neurotransmitters). Helps with neuron to neuron communication with release of neurotransmitters as signal molecules to attach to receptors

Voltage-gated ion channel - opens when voltage reached (Na+, K+ channels and calcium channels in axon terminal). Play key role when neurons fire action potentials.

Explain the process by which two neurons communicate at a synapse

Action potential makes it to axon terminal → depolarization activates calcium channels → vesicles with neurotransmitters fuse with pre-synaptic membrane → release neurotransmitters in synaptic cleft → neurotransmitters bind to receptors in postsynaptic neuron dendrite which are ligand-gated → receptors allow Na+/Cl- ions to open changing membrane potential → new AP in postsynaptic cell

After inactivation, neurotransmitters are re-absorbed into presynaptic terminal and stored in vesicles until next action potential arrives

Discuss how EPSPs and IPSPs are received and integrated by a postsynaptic neuron

EPSPs (excitatory postsynaptic potential) - depolarization (Na+)

IPSPs (inhibitory postsynaptic potential) - hyperpolarization (Cl-)

EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential) - positive change in membrane potential (depolarization + repolarization), Na+ ions diffuse into cell after neurotransmitters bind and activate Na+ channels,

STIMULATES ACTION POTENTIAL

IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential) - negative change in membrane potential (hyperpolarization), neurotransmitters bind and open Cl- and K+ channels, Cl- diffuses into the cell or K+ diffuses out

INHIBITS ACTION POTENTIAL

Evaluate how multiple signals will be integrated by a postsynaptic neuron that has

formed synapses with two or more pre-synaptic neurons.

Temporal Summation - multiple EPSPs arrive quickly at single synapse

Spatial Summation - multiple ESPS arrive at different locations simultaneously

Cancellation - EPSPs and IPSPs cancel each other out

Postsynaptic membranes contain multiple receptors, and can bind many different neurotransmitters.

Cell sums all the inputs -> if summed input breaches threshold potential, an action potential is fired at axon hillock

Temporal Summation = summed over time, frequency of synaptic stimuli determines action potential

Spatial Summation = summed over space, number of synaptic stimuli received from different regions of the postsynaptic cell's dendrites determines action potential

Predict how a charged molecule will move across a semipermeable membrane in the presence of an electrochemical gradient

Chemical gradients come from concentration differences

Electrical gradients come from charge separation

Electrical gradient stronger than chemical gradient

Charged molecule will move down its electrochemical gradient (ie. if positive will move to negative side)

Predict how addition of drugs or the introduction of mutated proteins will alter membrane potential, excitability, and/or signal transmission

Opioids bind to ligand-gated channels on postsynaptic cell → increased ion movement → increased signal → cell destroys receptors to decrease signal → need heavier dose of opioid to increase signal (get the same feeling)

+drugs affecting CNS causes decrease in postsynaptic cells and needs higher doses

+ drugs interrupting membrane potential/encouraging leaks makes neurons unable to fire or overfire

Describe the global organization of the human nervous system

Central nervous system-- brain, spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system-- sensory and motor nerve

PNS split into:

Somatic (Voluntary component)-- sensing and responding to external stimuli => split into motor nerves (efferent toward PNS) and sensory (afferent toward CNS)

Autonomic (Involuntary component)-- regulate internal bodily functions => sympathetic (flight or fight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)

Relate the major regions of the brain, including the hypothalamus, thalamus, and sensory cortex to their respective functions

Frontal Lobe- decision making and planning

Parietal Lobe- body awareness, ability to do complex tasks (ex. dressing)

Temporal Lobe- processing sound

Occipital Lobe- processing visual information

Primary Motor Cortex- complex, coordinated behaviors by controlling skeletal muscle movements

Primary Sensory Cortex- integrates tactile information from specific body regions and relays this information to the motor cortex

cerebellum: balance

Brainstem: initiates and regulates motor functions such as walking, posture, breathing and swallowing. Connects brain to spine => controls the flow of messages between the brain and the rest of the body

Hypothalamus- endocrine function, hormone production, autonomic function

Thalamus- relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex

Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system

Can't happen at the same time because affect the same pathway

Sympathetic - go hard, accelerated heart rate, dilates pupils, stimulates glucose release

Parasympathetic - constricts pupils, slows heart, rest and digest

Sympathetic:

- arousal and increased activity

- "fight or flight"... increases heart rate and breathing rate, inhibits digestion, stimulates glucose release

- nerves leave CNS from middle region of spinal cord

Parasympathetic:

- generally opposite effect of sympathetic

- "rest and digest"

- increases digestion, slows heart

- nerves leave CNS from brain via cranial nerves

Explain how the brain receives, processes, and sends information

Sensory info received by cranial nerves and spinal cord nerves → pass through brainstem → thalamus → specialized region in cerebral cortex

Regions

Frontal Lobe - decision making + understanding

Primary motor cortex - complex motor movements

Primary somatosensory cortex - relays tactile info to motor cortex

Parietal lobe - controls body awareness and the ability to perform complex tasks

Occipital lobe - vision

Visual cortex

Temporal lobe - sound, language, speaking, etc

Auditory cortex

Brain stem - sends info to cerebral cortex

Cerebellum - coordinates complex motor tasks with sensory and motor info

Evaluate which region of the brain has been damaged in a patient based on a set of symptoms

Broca's Area - Struggling to produce language but can comprehend speech - frontal lobe

Wernicke's - Can't comprehend speech but have no issue producing speech - temporal lobe

Predict which branch, parasympathetic or sympathetic, will respond to different stimuli

Scared - Sympathetic

Relaxed or Eating - Parasympathetic

Identify the components of a homeostatic negative feedback system

Components of negative feedback:

■ the process in which a stimulus acts on a sensor that communicates with an effector, producing a response that opposes the initial stimulus. Negative feedback is used to maintain steady conditions, or homeostasis.

● Stimulus:produces a change in the variable

● Sensor: measures/detects change in the variable

● Control: analyzes the information from the receptor and determines the appropriate response to the change

● Effector: organs or glands that carry out the response from the control center

● Response:the action of the effector that will counteract the stimulus and bring the variable back to its

normal value

Stimulus to sensor (Change in the level of something) - sensor to effector (Part of body or cells that detect) - effector to response (Part of body that makes change) - response inhibits sensor - brings it back to the set point

Explain how each component of a homeostatic negative feedback system contributes to maintaining physiological stability.

Need each level so that body can maintain stability, without one of the levels, homeostasis won't be achieved

Stimulus:Change in the level of something

Sensor (receptor): Part of body or cells that detect

Effector: Part of body that makes change

Response

Differentiate between negative feedback and positive feedback, providing examples of each.

Negative feedback:

■the process in which a stimulus acts on a sensor which communicates with an effector, producing a response that opposes the original stimulus; this process results in homeostasis

● Example: High blood glucose right after a meal acts a stimulus to the pancreas (sensor), which in turn, produces the hormone insulin, which allows muscle and liver cells (effector) to take up the glucose circulating in the bloodstream, thus resulting in a lower blood sugar level (response).

Positive feedback:

■ the type of feedback in which a stimulus causes a response that leads to the enhancement of the original

stimulus; this process reinforces itself until it is interrupted

● Example: Positive feedback occurs in mammals during birth. When uterine contractions occur, thehormone oxytocin (stimulus) is released from the pituitary gland (sensor?), which cause the uterine muscles (effector) to contract more forcefully. The uterine contractions, in turn, cause the pituitary gland to produce more oxytocin causing more contractions until the offspring is born.

Negative feedback (glucose/insulin)

Positive feedback (during menstrual cycle, right before ovulation, estrogen stimulates increase of GnRH → LH surge)

● The negative feedback loop is more commonly used and is pretty simple. When a

hormone​ reaches the optimal level in the bloodstream, a signal is sent to the hypothalamus and pituitary ​gland​. This signal stops the production of the hormone​ and the levels begin to decrease or increase.

● The opposite situation can also occur. If ​hormone​ levels are too low, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland can signal glands to produce more of the needed hormone​. The positive feedback loop is used less frequently. In this case, the effect of the ​hormone​ becomes more intense as the levels increase.

Predict how components of a homeostatic system will change when part of the system is perturbed.

Will get disrupted

Apply the concept of negative feedback to the process of thermoregulation.

Thermoregulation and negative feedback:

■ Negative feedback is the most common feedback loop in biological systems. The system acts to reverse the

direction of change. This tends to keep things constant, allowing the maintenance of homeostatic balance.

● Example: ​When body temperature rises, receptors in the skin and the hypothalamus sense the temperature change. The temperature change (stimulus) triggers a command from the brain. This command, causes a response (the skin makes sweat and blood vessels near the skin surface dilate), which helps decrease body temperature​.

Body temp goes up → activates thermoregulation portion of brain → Blood vessels dilate (release heat) and sweat glands release fluid → temp goes down

Body temp goes down → activates thermoregulation portion of brain → blood vessels constrict (contain heat), muscles contract repeatedly (shivering) → body temp goes up

Relate changes in environmental conditions to changes in physiological or behavioral responses to temperature regulation

Many animals regulate their body temperature through behavior, such as seeking sun or shade or huddling together for warmth.

■ Endotherms can alter metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature using both shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis.

■ Vasoconstriction — shrinking and expansion of blood vessels to the skin can alter an organism's exchange of heat with the environment.

A countercurrent heat exchanger is an arrangement of blood vessels in which heat flows from warmer to cooler blood, usually reducing heat loss.

Some animals use body insulation and evaporative mechanisms, such as sweating and panting, in body temperature regulation.

We can reset set point (obesity, fever)

Relate endocrine function to homeostatic regulation

The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis because hormones regulate the activity of body cells.

■ The release of hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus.

● The hypothalamus' ​function​ in the ​endocrine​ system is to control and stimulate the pituitary gland. The

hypothalamus and pituitary ​gland​ are connected via a system of blood vessels. Hormones produced in the hypothalamus travel through the vessels and stimulate the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus produces inhibiting or releasing ​hormone​s.

● Our thyroid gland is located in the neck and stimulated by TSH, which is appropriately called thyroid stimulating hormone. The thyroid is responsible for metabolism, regulating body temperature, the development of the nervous system, reproductive system and heart function. The thyroid secretes two hormones, T3 and T4, which are collectively called TH (thyroid hormone).

● The pancreas is also part of the endocrine system. Insulin and glucagon are secreted by the pancreas to regulate blood sugar levels. Among the cells used for digestion, are cells that produce hormones.

Alpha (α) ​cell​s secrete glucagon, which

elevates the level of glucose in the

blood.

Beta (β) ​cell​s secrete ​insulin​, which

decrease the level of glucose.

● In females, the important ​hormone​s are estrogen and progesterone. Both are produced in the ovaries.

They regulate the menstrual cycle and initiate production of eggs.

● Interstitial ​cell​s in the testes produce testosterone, which is the important sex ​hormone​ in males. Testosterone is responsible for sperm production and developing the secondary sexual traits.

Explain when and why hormones are released

Chemical compounds secreted by cells or glands that act on other cells or glands in the body either locally or at distant sites (transported through the bloodstream).

They are released in response to a signal promoting growth, homeostasis, reproduction, and regulation

Define the different types of hormones

Peptide/Amine Hormones

■ Due to their hydrophilic nature, they ​are unable to cross the cell's hydrophobic plasma membrane.​ Therefore,

they are only able to bind to cell surface receptors​. When binding to cell surface receptors, ​they activate second messenger pathways through the cell​, resulting in changes in the metabolic state or gene expression of the target cell.

● Peptide Hormones:​ type of hormone made from a chain of amino acids Example(s): Oxytocin and ADH

● Amine Hormones:​ type of hormone derived from a single aromatic amino acid

Example(s): Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, and Dopamine are all derived from the amino acid phenylalanine

Steroid Hormones:

■ A type of hormone derived from cholesterol

● Due to their hydrophobic nature,​ they are able to cross the cell's hydrophobic plasma membrane​. Inside the cell ​they bind to nuclear/cytoplasmic receptors​, causing them to act as transcription factors which change the gene expression of the target cell.

Hydrophilic-- peptide and amine (amino acids)

Bind to cell-surface receptors and stimulate signaling cascade

Hydrophobic-- steroid (cholesterol)

Bind to receptors in cytosol, affect DNA transcription, more profound and long lasting effects

Discuss the role that hormones play in the maintenance of homeostasis

Changes in levels are detected and hormones are released/inhibited in response

Sends signal to stop the disturbance accordingly

Provide examples of organisms that rely on different modes of reproduction

r -strategies - lots of babies, not much parental care

K-strategies - few babies, lots of parental care

Internal fertilization - eggs fertilized inside body

Viviparity - Born alive (ex. humans)

Ovoviviparity - born as eggs and hatch (ex. shark)

External fertilization - eggs fertilized outside of body

Frogs

Aquatic Environment - More likely to have external reproduction

Terrestrial Environment - More likely to have internal reproduction

Explain the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary

Hypothalamus in the brain sends message to pituitary gland via neurons and the pituitary gland secretes the appropriate hormone (LH, FSH)

■ The hypothalamus sends signals to the anterior pituitary gland through small blood vessels.​ Neurosecretory

neurons within the hypothalamus secrete releasing factors into these blood vessels, which bind to cell receptors

in the anterior pituitary, signaling the release of hormones into the bloodstream.

■ The hypothalamus sends signals to the posterior pituitary directly​; neurosecretory cells whose cell bodies reside

in the hypothalamus extend their axons to the posterior pituitary. In response to action potentials, these cells release hormones directly into the bloodstream that act on distant targets.

Determine whether a particular hormone will interact with a cytosolic or membrane-bound receptor

Steroid hormones bind to a cytoplasmic receptor.

Thyroid hormones bind to a nuclear receptor (inside membrane)

Epinephrine binds to beta-adrenergic receptors on the plasma membrane of cells.

Predict which hormones have been released from the pituitary to elicit a specific tissue response

Usually hormones that go directly to another gland to produce an effect => master gland

Look at the target cell and responser, should be opposite to the stimulus

Evaluate the consequences of altering a component of a hormone pathway

Make alternative then issue with feedback:

thyroid => overproduction causes a goiter

change set point => sensor affected

don't respond to sensor => effector effected

Describe different vertebrate reproductive strategies

External => in wet environment, can keep it wet, allows for nutrients from water and waste in water

Internal => inside the body, to keep it wet and not dry out, amniotes with placenta, birds use eggs oviparous and humans are vivaparous

Describe the mechanism of action for a G-protein coupled receptor pathway

Receptor is activated by ligand

GDP is switched for GTP when G-protein binds to activated receptor

Alpha subunit dissociates and binds to and activates adenylyl cyclase

ATP is converted into cAMP

cAMP activates PKA which phosphorylates and activates many target proteins

Identify critical components of the endocrine system involved in regulating the human reproductive system

GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone) -

From hypothalamus

Stimulates release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary

Released during the the late follicular phase (repressed otherwise)

Estrogen

From ovaries

Regulates release of GnRH, LH, and FSH throughout reproductive cycle

Helps egg mature

Positive feedback right before ovulation

Progesterone

From ovaries

Helps maintain uterine lining

Testosterone

From testes

Regulates release of GnRH, LH, and FSH throughout reproductive cycle

Discuss the similarities and differences in hormonal control of male and female reproductive systems

Very similar (in terms of hormones other than testosterone vs estrogen)

Male system is continuous and female system is cyclical

Describe the processes of oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Oogenesis - happens when female is born

Oocytes matures in ovary → follicles grow and estrogen stimulates maturation process → egg is released from follicle → follicle turns into corpus luteum in ovary (releases progesterone) → egg travels to uterus → if egg is not fertilized, corpus luteum degrades

Spermatogenesis - happens continuously

Sperm generated in testes (seminiferous tubules) → passes through epididymis (motility) → vas deferens → prostate (motility) → seminal vesicle (provides nutrition) → bulbourethral gland (lubrication) → urethra → penis

Predict how changes in release of pituitary sex hormones will alter oogenesis and

spermatogenesis

There is a negative feedback =>

decrease testosterone leads to increases in FSH and LH

Increase testosterone leads to decrease in FSH and LH

decrease in progesterone or estrogen then increase

Increase progesterone or estrogen then decrease => use this for contraceptives

Provide examples of organisms that rely on different modes of reproduction

Human (viviparity), sharks (ovoviviparity), Frogs (external fertilization), komodo dragon (asexual reproduction)

Distinguish between second messengers and other components of signal transduction pathways

Second messengers are in the cytoplasm, they help to amplify the signal and they go on to activate other molecules in the cycle

i.e Cyclic AMP