AP gov vocab

Social Contract

An agreement where people give up some freedom so the government can protect their rights.

Popular Sovereignty

The idea that the government’s power comes from the people.

Republicanism

A system where people elect representatives to make laws for them

Participatory Democracy

 A theory that citizens should actively and directly participate in government decisions.

Pluralist Theory

A theory that political power is spread among many different groups that compete to influence government.

Elitist Theory

 A theory that a small, wealthy, or powerful group has most of the influence over government decisions.

Federalists

People who supported the ratification of the U.S. Constitution and a strong national government.

Antifederalists

People who opposed the Constitution because they feared a strong national government.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. constitution that created a weak national government.

Shay’s Rebellion

An uprising of farmers that showed the national government was too weak under the Articles.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting where the Constitution was written

Virginia Plan

A plan for government with representation based on population

New Jersey Plan

 A plan for government with equal representation for each state.

Great Compromise

The agreement creating a two-house Congress: one based on population, one with equal representation.

Three-Fifths Compromise

The agreement to count enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation.

Separation of Powers

Dividing government into branches to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Federalism

A system where power is shared between the national and state governments.

Expressed (Enumerated) Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution for Congress.

Exclusive Powers

Powers held only by the national government.

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly listed but necessary to carry out expressed powers.

Reserved Powers

Powers given to the states.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both the national and state governments.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to honor the laws and court decisions of other states.

Extradition

The process of returning a fugitive to the state where the crime was committed.

Categorical Grants

Federal grants given to states with strict rules on how the money must be used.

Unfunded Mandate

A federal requirement that states must follow without being given money to do so.

Block Grants

Federal grants given to states with broad guidelines, allowing more state control.

Apportionment

The process of distributing seats in the U.S. House of Representatives among states based on population after the census.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer and most powerful leader of the U.S. House of Representatives; controls debate, committee assignments, and the legislative agenda.

House Majority Leader

Leader of the majority party in the House who schedules legislation and guides party strategy.

Minority Leader

Leader of the minority party in either chamber who organizes opposition and strategy.

Majority Whip

Party leader who counts votes and ensures members of the majority party support party positions.

Minority Whip

Same role as the majority whip but for the minority party.

President pro tempore

The presiding officer of the United States Senate when the vice president is absent; usually the longest-serving member of the majority party.

Senate Majority Leader

The most powerful member in the Senate who controls the legislative agenda and schedules debate.

Filibuster

A tactic in the Senate where senators delay or block legislation by continuing debate indefinitely.

Cloture

A vote (usually 60 senators) to end a filibuster and force a vote on a bill.

Pork Barrel Spending

Government spending on local projects meant to benefit a legislator’s district.

Logrolling

When legislators trade votes to support each other’s bills.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

A federal agency in the Executive Office that helps the president prepare the federal budget.

Mandatory Spending

Government spending required by existing laws (like entitlement programs).

Discretionary Spending

Government spending that Congress must approve each year through appropriations bills.

Delegate Model

Representatives vote exactly as their constituents want.

Trustee Model

Representatives use their own judgment to make decisions for constituents

Politico Model

Representatives combine the delegate and trustee approaches depending on the issue.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district boundaries after the census.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to favor a party or group.

Partisan Gerrymandering

Helps one political party.

Racial Gerrymandering

Draws districts based primarily on race

Informal Powers

 Powers not written in the Constitution but gained through tradition or political influence.

Pocket Veto

When the president does not sign a bill within 10 days and Congress adjourns, so the bill dies.

Signing Statement

A written comment issued when the president signs a bill explaining how they will interpret or enforce it.

Executive Privilege

The president’s ability to keep certain communications confidential.

Executive Office of the President

A group of agencies that help the president manage the executive branch.

Bully Pulpit

The president’s ability to use their position to influence public opinion.

Original Jurisdiction

Authority of a court to hear a case first.

Appellate Jurisdiction

Authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to declare laws or actions unconstitutional.

Stare Decisis

The principle that courts should follow precedent.

Judicial Restraint

Philosophy that courts should avoid overturning laws unless clearly unconstitutional.

Judicial Activism

Philosophy that courts should take an active role in interpreting the Constitution and protecting rights.

Administrative Adjudication

The process where bureaucratic agencies settle disputes or enforce regulations.

Iron Triangle

A strong relationship among a congressional committee, a bureaucracy, and an interest group.

Issue Network

 loose network of interest groups, officials, and experts working on policy issues.

Delegated Discretionary Authority

When Congress gives agencies the power to decide how to implement laws.

Congressional Oversight

Congress monitoring the bureaucracy to ensure laws are properly implemented.

Civil Liberties

Basic freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution that protect individuals from government interference.

Clear and Present Danger Test

 Standard from Schenck v. United States allowing limits on speech that poses an immediate threat.

Prior Restraint

Government censorship of speech before it is published; generally unconstitutional.

Libel

Written false statements that damage a person’s reputation.

Ex Post Facto Laws

Laws that criminalize actions after they were already committed; unconstitutional.

Bill of Attainder

 A law that punishes a person without a trial; unconstitutional.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

Court order requiring authorities to justify holding a prisoner.

Selective Incorporation

Process by which the Supreme Court applies Bill of Rights protections to the states through the 14th Amendment.

Miranda Rights

 Rights read to suspects upon arrest (e.g., right to remain silent), established in Miranda v. Arizona.

Civil Rights

Protections against discrimination by the government.

Separate but Equal

 Doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson allowing racial segregation (later overturned).

Affirmative Action

 Policies that aim to increase opportunities for historically marginalized groups.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination in public places and employment.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

 Eliminated barriers (like literacy tests) that prevented voting.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972

Prohibits sex-based discrimination in education programs receiving federal funding.

Political Culture

Shared beliefs, values, and norms about government and politics (like liberty, equality, democracy).

Rule of Law

Everyone (including leaders) must follow the law; no one is above it.

Political Socialization

Process by which people form their political beliefs (influenced by family, school, media, peers)

Political Ideology

A consistent set of beliefs about government and politics (e.g., liberal, conservative).

Generational Effect

When major events (wars, recessions) shape the political views of an entire age group.

Focus Group

Small, selected group asked in-depth questions to gauge opinions.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population being studied.

Sampling Error

The margin of error; how much poll results may differ from the true population.

Exit Poll

Survey of voters taken right after they vote.

Benchmark Poll

First poll in a campaign; establishes a starting point.

Tracking Poll

Poll taken repeatedly over time to measure changes in opinion.

Question Order

The sequence of questions in a poll, which can influence responses.

Party Ideology

The overall set of beliefs held by a political party (e.g., Democrats vs. Republicans).

Party Identification

A person’s psychological attachment to a political party.

Conservatism

Favors limited government, free markets, and traditional values.

Liberalism

Supports more government involvement to promote equality and social welfare.

Libertarianism

 Favors minimal government in both economic and personal matters.

Fiscal Policy

Government use of spending and taxation to influence the economy.

Monetary Policy

Control of money supply and interest rates (managed by the Federal Reserve).