Psych (1-5) - Everything up to but not including CC

Memory

The processes used to encode, store, retain and retrieve information. It involves three sequential processes: encoding (converting sensory info into a usable form), storage (retaining encoded info over time), and retrieval (accessing stored info when needed).

Sensation

The physiological process by which sensory organs receive/detect information (stimuli) from the environment and transmit it to the brain for processing. Sensation involves three processes: reception, transduction, and transmission. It is distinct from perception (which gives meaning to sensory info).

Reception

The first stage of sensation in which sensory organs detect a stimulus from the environment. In vision: photoreceptors (rods and cones) on the retina detect light stimuli. Rods = black/white/night vision; Cones = colour/daylight vision.

Transduction

The second stage of sensation in which the detected stimulus is converted into neural signals (action potentials/nerve impulses) at the sensory receptor. In vision: light energy is converted into electrical signals by photoreceptors on the retina. This is a CONVERSION process — do not confuse with transmission.

Transmission

The third stage of sensation in which neural impulses are sent along sensory neurons (e.g. optic nerve for vision) to the relevant area of the brain for processing. In vision: signals travel via the optic nerve to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe.

Perception

The psychological process of interpreting and giving meaning to sensory information. It involves three stages: selection (filtering/attending to specific stimuli), organisation (grouping features into a coherent whole using Gestalt principles, depth cues, perceptual constancies), and interpretation (assigning meaning based on past experience, expectations, context).

Selection (Perception)

The first stage of perception in which attention is focused on specific sensory information while filtering out irrelevant stimuli. We cannot attend to all stimuli simultaneously — selective attention determines what is processed further.

Organisation (Perception)

The second stage of perception in which sensory information is grouped and categorised to create a coherent, meaningful whole. Involves Gestalt principles, perceptual constancies, and depth cues. Temporal lobe = object identification (WHAT); Parietal lobe = spatial location (WHERE).

Interpretation (Perception)

The third stage of perception in which the brain draws on past experiences, expectations, context, motives and values to assign meaning to organised sensory information. Different people can interpret the same stimulus differently due to different life experiences.

Selective attention

Focusing on one specific stimulus while ignoring other stimuli. Only the attended information is encoded into memory. Demonstrated by the Cocktail Party Effect (Cherry, 1953).

Divided attention

Attempting to focus on multiple stimuli simultaneously. Results in weaker encoding and retrieval than selective attention. The brain's processing capacity is limited.

Encoding

The first process of memory — converting/transforming sensory information into a form that the brain can use, store and interpret. Types: visual (iconic), auditory (echoic), semantic (meaning).

Storage

The second process of memory — the retention of encoded information in memory over time in an organised manner, available for later retrieval.

Retrieval

The third process of memory — accessing and recalling stored information from memory when it is needed. Requires appropriate retrieval cues.

Multi-store model (MSM)

A model of memory proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) that describes memory as three separate, sequential stores: sensory register → short-term memory → long-term memory. Information flows linearly through the stores. Attention transfers info from sensory register to STM; rehearsal transfers info from STM to LTM.

Sensory register

The first memory store in the MSM. Receives ALL sensory information from the five senses. Duration: very brief (~0.25–0.5 sec iconic, ~3–4 sec echoic). Capacity: very large/unlimited. Encoding: sensory-specific (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory). Information not attended to is lost.

Short-term memory (STM)

The second memory store in the MSM. Duration: 15–30 seconds without rehearsal. Capacity: 7±2 items (Miller, 1956). Encoding: primarily acoustic/auditory. Maintenance rehearsal can extend duration. Information lost through decay or displacement.

Long-term memory (LTM)

The third memory store in the MSM. Duration: potentially permanent/unlimited. Capacity: unlimited. Encoding: primarily semantic (meaning-based), but can also be visual or acoustic. Divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Explicit (declarative) memory

A type of LTM that involves the conscious retrieval of information about events, people, facts and experiences. Divided into episodic memory and semantic memory. Depends on the hippocampus for formation.

Episodic memory

A sub-type of explicit/declarative LTM — memory of personal events and experiences that include WHAT happened, WHEN it happened, and WHERE it happened. Depends on interpretation and encoding context.

Semantic memory

A sub-type of explicit/declarative LTM — memory of general facts, knowledge and information about the world. Does not have a specific time or place tag (unlike episodic memory).

Implicit (non-declarative) memory

A type of LTM that involves unconscious retrieval — automatic memory that does not require conscious effort. Includes procedural memory and classically conditioned responses. Does NOT depend on the hippocampus.

Procedural memory

A sub-type of implicit/non-declarative LTM — memory of how to do things (motor skills, habits). Automatic and subconscious. Stored/processed by the cerebellum. E.g. riding a bike, tying shoelaces.

Working memory model (WMM)

A model of memory proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974; Baddeley, 2000) that describes STM as an ACTIVE system with multiple components that manipulate information, not just a passive store. Four components: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer.

Central executive

The control centre of the WMM — directs attention, coordinates the activities of the three subsystems, and determines what information is relevant. Functions: inhibition, switching between tasks, and updating information.

Phonological loop

A subsystem of the WMM — stores and processes phonological (language/sound) information. Acts as the 'inner voice and inner ear'. Responsible for all verbal information processing.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A subsystem of the WMM — stores and processes visual and spatial information (e.g. shape, colour, pattern, position). Located in the occipital lobe (visual cortex). Responsible for spatial images and relationships.

Episodic buffer

A subsystem of the WMM added by Baddeley (2000) — links information across domains (visual, spatial, verbal) so it can be integrated. Connects working memory to LTM. Responsible for binding what, when and where together.

Hippocampus

A brain structure in the limbic system critical for the formation, sorting, consolidation and storage of memory — particularly the consolidation of STM into LTM. Essential for declarative (explicit) memory. NOT required for procedural (implicit) memory. Demonstrated by the H.M. case study.

Cerebellum

A brain structure crucial for the formation and storage of implicit/procedural memories (motor skills and habits). Encodes, processes, stores and fine-tunes motor skills. Receives sensory input from the cerebral cortex and integrates it with motor commands. Also involved in classical conditioning. Damage → jerky movements + procedural memory loss.

Amygdala

A small brain structure above the hippocampus that processes and regulates emotional reactions (fear, anger, aggression). Plays three roles in memory: (1) emotional encoding — encodes emotional experiences into memory, (2) memory consolidation — emotional input consolidates memories being formed by hippocampus, making them stronger, (3) enhanced retrieval — emotionally arousing content is recalled more accurately. Linked to noradrenaline release and flashbulb memories.

Consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into stable, long-term memories. Primarily occurs in the hippocampus. During consolidation, neural connections are strengthened and memories become resistant to disruption.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form NEW declarative (explicit) memories after brain damage/injury. Old memories (formed before the damage) remain intact. Demonstrated in H.M. after surgical removal of the hippocampus.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to recall memories that were formed BEFORE brain damage/injury. The person cannot access previously stored memories. Can be partial or complete.

Flashbulb memory

A highly detailed, vivid, long-lasting memory of a surprising or emotionally significant event (e.g. 9/11, death of a loved one). Formation is influenced by the amygdala's role in emotional encoding and noradrenaline release.

Forgetting

The inability to retrieve information that has been previously encoded and stored in memory. Four types of forgetting: retrieval failure, interference (proactive and retroactive), motivated forgetting, and decay.

Retrieval failure

A type of forgetting in which information stored in LTM cannot be accessed due to the absence of appropriate retrieval cues. The memory is AVAILABLE (still stored) but not ACCESSIBLE (cannot be reached). Context-dependent and state-dependent memory are related concepts.

Retrieval cue

Any stimulus that assists in locating and accessing stored information from memory. Can be contextual (environment), emotional (mood/state), or semantic (meaning-based prompts).

Interference

A type of forgetting in which the retrieval of information from LTM is disrupted by similar information. More similar information = more interference. Closer in time = more interference. Two types: proactive and retroactive.

Proactive interference

A type of interference in which OLD (previously learned) information interferes with the recall of NEW information. 'Pro' = forward — old info reaches forward to disrupt new learning. E.g. A teacher calling a new student by a former student's name.

Retroactive interference

A type of interference in which NEW (recently learned) information interferes with the recall of OLD (previously learned) information. 'Retro' = backward — new info reaches backward to disrupt old memory. E.g. Learning Italian makes it harder to recall French vocabulary.

Motivated forgetting

A type of forgetting in which unpleasant or disturbing memories are suppressed from conscious awareness to reduce emotional discomfort. Includes repression (unconscious blocking — Freud) and suppression (conscious, deliberate avoidance).

Repression

A form of motivated forgetting in which disturbing or traumatic memories are UNCONSCIOUSLY blocked from awareness as a psychological defence mechanism (Freud). The person is not aware they are blocking the memory.

Suppression

A form of motivated forgetting in which a person CONSCIOUSLY and deliberately avoids thinking about or recalling a disturbing memory. Unlike repression, the person is aware of the effort to avoid the memory.

Decay theory

A type of forgetting in which memories fade or erode over time due to lack of use. Neural connections weaken when information is not rehearsed. Primarily explains forgetting in STM (info fades within 15–30 seconds without rehearsal). LTM decay is debated.

Recall

A method of retrieval in which a person must reproduce information from memory with minimal or no cues. Three types: free recall (any order), serial recall (original order), and cued recall (with prompts/hints given).

Free recall

A type of recall in which a person reproduces information from memory in ANY order, without specific prompts. The hardest form of retrieval.

Serial recall

A type of recall in which a person reproduces information from memory in the ORIGINAL ORDER in which it was presented.

Cued recall

A type of recall in which a person is given a prompt or hint to assist in retrieving information from memory. Easier than free recall because the cue provides a retrieval pathway.

Recognition

A method of retrieval in which a person identifies correct information from a set of alternatives (e.g. multiple-choice questions). Easier than recall because the correct answer provides its own retrieval cue.

Relearning

A method of retrieval in which previously learned information is learned again. It is faster the second time because some memory trace remains. Also called the 'method of savings'. The most sensitive measure of memory retention (Ebbinghaus, 1885).

Levels of processing model

A model of memory proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972) that states the depth/quality of processing during encoding determines how well information is stored in LTM. Deeper processing → better recall. Challenges the MSM's emphasis on rehearsal alone. Three levels: structural (shallow), phonemic (shallow), semantic (deep).

Structural processing

The shallowest level of processing — encoding the PHYSICAL APPEARANCE of information (e.g. 'Is the word in capital letters?'). Produces weakest memory trace.

Phonemic processing

A shallow level of processing — encoding the SOUND of information (e.g. 'Does the word rhyme with WEIGHT?'). Produces a stronger memory trace than structural, but weaker than semantic.

Semantic processing

The deepest level of processing — encoding the MEANING of information and relating it to things with similar meaning (e.g. 'Does the word fit in this sentence: The ___ was tasty?'). Produces the strongest, longest-lasting memory trace.

Rehearsal

The conscious process of manipulating information to keep it in STM, transfer it to LTM, or aid later retrieval. Two types: maintenance rehearsal (repetition) and elaborative rehearsal (meaningful processing).

Maintenance rehearsal

A type of rehearsal involving simple REPETITION of information to keep it in STM. Shallow processing. Prevents decay in STM but is less effective for transferring information to LTM. E.g. repeating a phone number over and over.

Elaborative rehearsal

A type of rehearsal involving the MEANINGFUL ANALYSIS and linking of new information with existing knowledge in LTM. Deep processing. More effective than maintenance rehearsal for creating durable long-term memories. Includes self-reference effect.

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

A graphical representation of the forgetting process (Ebbinghaus, 1885) demonstrating that memory declines rapidly after initial learning (~50% within 1 hour, ~70% within 24 hours) and then the rate of decline slows. Spaced repetition counteracts the curve. Relearning is faster than original learning ('savings').

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A TRAUMA-induced cause of memory loss caused by repeated physical trauma to the head (e.g. contact sports, boxing). Repeated concussions → abnormal buildup of Tau protein → death of nerve cells (hippocampus, frontal lobes). Only diagnosed post-mortem (autopsy). Behavioural: impulsivity, aggression. Emotional: depression, mood swings, suicidal thoughts. Memory: STM loss progressing to dementia.

Alzheimer's disease

A DEGENERATIVE cause of memory loss — a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by accumulation of AMYLOID plaques (protein deposits between neurons) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted Tau inside neurons). Early damage in hippocampus → STM affected first, progressing to LTM. Behavioural: disorientation, wandering, unable to do routine tasks. Emotional: depression, apathy, aggression.

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (WKS)

A DRUG-INDUCED cause of memory loss caused by severe thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, most commonly linked to chronic alcohol misuse. Damages thalamus and mammillary bodies. Wernicke's = acute phase (confusion, ataxia, eye abnormalities). Korsakoff's = chronic, irreversible phase. Key symptom: confabulation (making up stories without intent to deceive). Severe anterograde amnesia.

Confabulation

A symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome in which a person creates false or fabricated memories to fill gaps in their memory, without any intention to deceive. The person genuinely believes the fabricated memories are real.