10 - Cold War rivalries, 1955 - 1963

What happened May 1957?

USSR develops the first ICBM

What happened October 1957?

Sputnik is launched

What happened November 1957?

the Gaither Report is commissioned

What happened November 1958?

USSR’s Berlin Ultimatum is issued

What happened May 1960?

US U-2 spy plane is shot down over Soviet territory

What happened April 1961?

Gagarin is the first man into outer space

What happened August 1961?

Construction of the Berlin Wall is started

What happened June 1963?

Kennedy makes his ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ speech

In what way was Soviet foreign policy somewhat contradictory after the death of Stalin?

What was part of the reason for this?

one side - summit diplomacy + peaceful coexistence

other side - support for revolutionary regimes, launch of Sputnik, stockpiling of weapons

part of reason - Mao Zedong’s challenge to Khrushchev’s claim on leadership of the communist world

How were the Americans no less contradictory in their policies?

• Eisenhower decried the ‘military industrial complex’ while supporting the development of new weapons and more of them

• Kennedy continued many of his policies

When did a nuclear arms race begin?

1949 - the USSR succeeded in testing its nuclear technology

What did the US + USSR do nuke-wise in March 1954?

March 1954 - USA successfully tested a H-bomb that was 1500 times more powerful than the bomb used at Hiroshima in 1945

by September USSR had similar technology + by 1955 had tested H-bomb 100 times more powerful than their first attempts

What was the Strategic Air Command?

• USA - set up from 1948 by General LeMay

• was to serve as primary defence system

• role = to provide 24-hour readiness to respond to an external nuclear threat

• also responsible for the deployment + management of USA’s growing nuclear force

What was the USSR able to do from 1957, regarding nuclear technology?

able to develop missile delivery systems for nuclear warheads - means bomb can be carried across the world to its target

What report ddi Eisenhower commission in November 1957?

the Gaither Report - to investigate the state of US-Soviet nuclear capability

What did the Soviets do nuclear technology wise in 1957?

• summer - successfully tested the first ICBM

• October - put the first satellite into orbit

What did the Gaither Report say?

• first presented the concept of a missile gap between USA + USSR, predicted a 100 to 30 lead in ICBMs in favour of USSR

Eisenhower had intended to calm popular fears + reinforce idea that USA controlled the nuclear arms race, but instead it was reported in the news to the public that the USA was in grave danger

What did Eisenhower place his trust in rather than the findings of the Gaither Report?

What did this data suggest?

data received from U-2 spy plane intelligence gathering

suggested slow rate of production of nuclear warheads by USSR - Gaither Report had based conclusions on inadequate evidence

How did Eisenhower strengthen the USA’s nuclear strike capability in 1957?

negotiated an agreement with Britain at the Bermuda Conference that enabled USA to station IRBMs in Britain manned by British personal

similar agreement reached with NATO in December 1957

What happened in 1959 regarding nuclear technology and the arms race?

• 1959 - development of a new generation of nuclear missile systems

• meanwhile USSR was developing its own revised systems

How many ICBMs did each nation have 1960 vs.1964?

USA - 295 vs. 835

USSR - 75 vs. 200

How was the space race linked to nuclear proliferation?

continuation of nuclear proliferation

was theorised the ability to build a satellite would give developer superiority in arms race

When did the Soviet Union claim the first victory in the technological arms race by launching the first satellite to orbit the earth?

4 October 1957 - Sputnik

When did the USSR launch a dog into orbit in Sputnik II?

November 1957

How did the launch of Sputnik and Sputnik II impact the USA?

• was convinced that USSR had the technology to launch nuclear missiles against it → was no known defence against what was perceived as the start of an era of nuclear missile attacks from space

• Eisenhower’s Republic administration under increasing pressure from Democrats who accused it of allowing USSR to gain lead in space technology in order to cut costs

• created sense of urgency for USA to develop its own space technology program

What as the progression of the USA’s space technology program?

September 1958 - government authorised $1 billion for space technology development

initial response = disaster as a rocket crashed, nicknamed ‘Flopnik’

soon rapidly caught up

1962 → USA had successfully launched 63 space missions compared to USSR’s 15

from August 1960 - US Discoverer satellite program providing long-range intelligence gathering photos from space, rendered U-2 flights semi-obsolete

USA ABLE TO GAIN MORE COVERAGE IN ONE CAPSULE THAN PAST FOUR YEARS COMBINED OF U-2 COVERAGE

When did Eisenhower establish the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)?

1958

was strong belief among US leaders that space was all-important to US security + that control of space would lead to global control

When did Khrushchev become the USSR’s prime minister and its supreme decision-maker?

1958

What factors influenced Khrushchev’s actions upon becoming the USSR’s prime minister?

• Soviet space programme appeared to dominate over US space programme

• West Germany now member of NATO, could result in it being equipped with nuclear weapons → could threaten Soviet security

• USSR’s hold on parts of Eastern Europe = fragile, heavy Soviet defence spending was draining resources from region + undermining confidence in communist system as availability of consumer goods became increasingly difficult

• no significant restrictions on German Democratic Republic (GDR) citizens leaving country + fleeing to more prosperous + capitalist West - further undermined GDR’s economy

• West had not yet recognised the existence of the GDR

What were Khrushchev’s priorities as Soviet leader?

• strengthen the economy + defences of USSR

• global ideological expansion

Berlin became the focal point for the fulfilment of these objectives

What were the factors contributing to Berlin Ultimatum being issued?

• 1950s - West had invested heavily into West Berlin, had made city flagship of Western capitalism - very obvious comparison for East Germans to make

• Moscow feared USA might place nuclear missiles in Germany due to fear of the accelerating competition in nuclear and space technology

• wanted to minimise US influence in Germany + gain assurance West Germany would never be armed with US-backed nuclear weapons

• thought a propaganda victory against the Western powers in Berlin might strengthen the Soviet position

• by 1958 Sino-Soviet relations deteriorating, needed to strengthen USSR’s credentials as dominant communist power

When was the Berlin ultimatum issued to the West?

November 1958

What was the Berlin Ultimatum?

six-month ultimatum

demanded:

• withdrawal of Western troops from West Berlin

• for Berlin to be declared a ‘free city’

idea was either the Western powers would negotiate an acceptable settlement of the German question, or USSR would sign separate treaty with GDR → would threaten Western powers access to + occupation of West Berlin as GDR controlled access to West Berlin → Western powers would be forced to deal with - thus recognise - the GDR

When did Western powers reject the Berlin Ultimatum?

a month after it was issued, in December 1958 (although there was a desire from both US + UK to lessen confrontation with USSR)

What actions were taken over the German question between the German Ultimatum (November 1958) and the U-2 spy plane incident (May 1960)?

• British Prime Minister visited Moscow February 1959

• Khrushchev invited to Camp David talks with Eisenhower September 1959

talks inconclusive + uneasy status quo continued

• Paris Summit May 1960 - any progress halted with the revelation that an American U-2 spy plane had been brought down over Soviet territory

What was the impact of the U-2 spy plane incident?

• Eisenhower refused to apologise, ending the 1950’s ‘thaw’

• shattered the personal diplomatic relationship between Khrushchev and Eisenhower

• USSR painted US as aggressive law breakers

How many GDR citizens fled to the West in:

first half of 1961? (fled)

1953? (had fled)

1956? (how many more)

½ 1961 - 10,000 fled

1953 - 300,000 had fled

1956 - 150,000 more

Why was the loss of GDR citizens to the West particularly bad for East Germany?

many were skilled workers + those who were most able to contribute to East Germany’s economic growth in the future

What began in 1961 to prevent the fleeing of GDR citizens to the West?

the creation of the Berlin Wall - was to physically seal off West Berlin

What was the Berlin Wall?

concrete wall with perimeter defences intended to physically seal off West Berlin, there were only four recognised crossing points

What was the USA’s position on the Berlin Wall?

• called it illegal

• didn’t recognise the Soviet Zone of Berlin as part of the GDR

• against it

What was the USSR’s position on the Berlin Wall?

• stated it was the only way to prevent subversive activity being carried out against the GDR + other countries of the socialist community

• stated that West Berlin had been transformed into a centre of political + economic provocations agains the GDR

• framed this as necessary and justified

In what way was the Berlin Wall more than merely the physical symbol of Cold War confrontation?

• June 1963 - Kennedy’s ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ speech - attacked the failures of the communist system - transformed the Berlin Wall from a Soviet symbol of strength to a visual representation of communist failure

• GDR’s immediate economic crisis was resolved - skilled workers + professionals now unable to leave

• inaction of the West + its apparent tolerance of the Wall suggested that the West had reached a degree of recognition of the GDR

• the wall enabled the avoidance of a nuclear confrontation - Kennedy believed the wall was unacceptable but in reality it was a better alternative than war over the wall