Social Class Internal

What are internal factors in explaining class differences in educational achievement?

Processes within schools that create class inequality, including labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming, pupil subcultures and the influence of middle-class school culture.

What is labelling, and how does it create class inequality?

Attaching meanings or definitions to pupils, such as 'bright' or 'troublemaker'. Teachers often base labels on class stereotypes rather than ability, giving middle-class pupils positive labels and working-class pupils negative ones.

What did Becker find about the 'ideal pupil'?

Teachers judged pupils against an image of the 'ideal pupil', who was typically middle-class, well-behaved and hardworking. Working-class pupils were stereotyped as badly behaved and less capable, so they were less likely to fit it.

What did Dunne and Gazeley find about teacher expectations?

Teachers normalised working-class underachievement but believed middle-class underachievement could be overcome. They gave middle-class pupils more support and extension work and entered working-class pupils for easier exams.

What did Rist find about labelling in primary schools?

Teachers grouped pupils by appearance and social class rather than ability, giving middle-class pupils more encouragement.

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy, and what are its three stages?

A prediction that comes true because people act as if it is already true. (1) Teacher labels pupil, (2) Teacher treats pupil according to the label, (3) Pupil internalises the label and acts accordingly.

What did Rosenthal and Jacobson find about teacher expectations?

Pupils randomly labelled as 'spurters' made greater progress because teachers unconsciously gave them more encouragement.

What is streaming, and how does it reinforce class inequality?

Separating pupils into ability groups for all subjects. Working-class pupils are more likely to be placed in lower streams and face lower expectations.

What did Douglas find about streaming and IQ?

Pupils in lower streams showed falling IQ scores, while those in higher streams improved.

What is the 'A-to-C economy'?

Gillborn and Youdell's idea that schools focus resources on pupils most likely to achieve 5 A*-C grades to improve league table positions.

What is educational triage, and why does it disadvantage working-class pupils?

Sorting pupils into those who will pass anyway, those who can be helped, and 'hopeless cases'. Working-class pupils are more likely to be labelled 'hopeless cases' and placed in lower sets.

What is differentiation?

Teachers categorising pupils according to perceived ability, behaviour and attitude.

What is polarisation?

Pupils responding to streaming by forming either pro-school or anti-school subcultures.

What is a pro-school subculture?

A group committed to school values, achievement and teacher approval.

What is an anti-school subculture?

A group that rejects school values and gains status through rule-breaking and opposition to authority.

What did Lacey find about streaming and subcultures?

Streaming caused high-stream pupils to form pro-school subcultures and low-stream pupils to form anti-school subcultures.

What did Hargreaves find about lower-stream boys?

They formed delinquent anti-school subcultures after repeated failure and negative labels.

What did Ball find when streaming was removed?

Polarisation reduced, but teacher labelling and class inequality still continued.

What are Woods' four pupil responses to school?

Ingratiation (seeking teacher approval, the 'teacher's pet'), ritualism (going through the motions), retreatism (daydreaming and disengaging) and rebellion (completely rejecting school values and authority).

What is the main criticism of labelling theory?

It is deterministic because it assumes pupils always accept labels.

What did Fuller find that challenged labelling theory?

Some black girls rejected negative labels and still achieved educational success.

What did Archer find about working-class identities?

Working-class pupils created 'Nike identities' as an alternative source of status outside school. Schools saw these as signs of rebellion and lack of commitment to education.

What did Willis study and argue?

He studied 12 working-class boys ('the lads') moving from school to work. He argued that even resistance to school reproduces capitalism by preparing working-class boys for manual labour.

What was the lads' counter-school culture?

They rejected school rules, mocked hard-working pupils and valued manual work over academic success. They saw meritocracy as a 'con' and believed qualifications would not improve their future.

What are the criticisms of Willis' study?

The sample was small, Willis romanticised the lads, and he focused too heavily on class while ignoring gender and ethnicity.