Social Class Internal

What are internal factors in explaining class differences in educational achievement?

Internal factors are processes within schools that create class inequality, including labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming, pupil subcultures and the influence of middle-class school culture.

What is labelling?

Labelling is the process of attaching meanings or definitions to pupils, such as ‘bright’ or ‘troublemaker’.

How does labelling create class inequality?

Teachers often base labels on class stereotypes rather than ability, giving middle-class pupils positive labels and working-class pupils negative labels.

What did Becker find about the ‘ideal pupil’?

Teachers judged pupils against an image of the ‘ideal pupil’, who was typically middle-class, well-behaved and hardworking.

Why are working-class pupils less likely to be seen as the ‘ideal pupil’?

Teachers often stereotype working-class pupils as badly behaved, less motivated and less capable.

What did Dunne and Gazeley find about teacher expectations?

Teachers normalised working-class underachievement but believed middle-class underachievement could be overcome.

How did Dunne and Gazeley show class bias in schools?

Teachers gave more support and extension work to middle-class pupils while entering working-class pupils for easier exams.

What did Rist find about labelling in primary schools?

Teachers grouped pupils by appearance and social class rather than ability, giving middle-class pupils more encouragement.

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

A prediction that becomes true because people act as if it is already true.

What are the three stages of the self-fulfilling prophecy?

(1) Teacher labels pupil, (2) Teacher treats pupil according to the label, (3) Pupil internalises the label and acts accordingly.

What did Rosenthal and Jacobson find about teacher expectations?

Pupils randomly labelled as ‘spurters’ made greater progress because teachers unconsciously gave them more encouragement.

How can negative labels cause underachievement?

Working-class pupils may internalise low expectations, lose confidence and eventually fail.

What is streaming?

Separating pupils into ability groups for all subjects.

How does streaming reinforce class inequality?

Working-class pupils are more likely to be placed in lower streams and experience lower expectations.

What did Douglas find about streaming and IQ?

Pupils in lower streams showed falling IQ scores, while those in higher streams improved.

What is the ‘A-to-C economy’?

Schools focus resources on pupils most likely to achieve 5 A*-C grades to improve league table positions.

Who developed the idea of the ‘A-to-C economy’?

Gillborn and Youdell.

What is educational triage?

The process of sorting pupils into those who will pass anyway, those who can be helped, and ‘hopeless cases’.

Why does educational triage disadvantage working-class pupils?

Working-class pupils are more likely to be labelled as ‘hopeless cases’ and placed in lower sets.

What is differentiation?

The process by which teachers categorise pupils according to perceived ability, behaviour and attitude.

What is polarisation?

The process where pupils respond to streaming by forming either pro-school or anti-school subcultures.

What is a pro-school subculture?

A group committed to school values, achievement and teacher approval.

What is an anti-school subculture?

A group that rejects school values and gains status through rule-breaking and opposition to authority.

What did Lacey find about streaming and subcultures?

Streaming caused high-stream pupils to form pro-school subcultures and low-stream pupils to form anti-school subcultures.

What did Hargreaves find about lower-stream boys?

Lower-stream boys formed delinquent anti-school subcultures after experiencing repeated failure and negative labels.

What did Ball find when streaming was removed?

Polarisation reduced, but teacher labelling and class inequality still continued.

What did Woods argue about pupil responses to school?

Pupils respond in different ways, including ingratiation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion.

What is ingratiation?

Trying to gain teacher approval and become the ‘teacher’s pet’.

What is ritualism?

Going through the motions of school without strong commitment.

What is retreatism?

Daydreaming and disengaging from school.

What is rebellion?

Completely rejecting school values and authority.

What is the main criticism of labelling theory?

It is deterministic because it assumes pupils always accept labels.

What did Fuller find that challenged labelling theory?

Some black girls rejected negative labels and still achieved educational success.

What did Archer find about working-class identities?

Working-class pupils created ‘Nike identities’ as an alternative source of status outside school.

Why do ‘Nike identities’ conflict with school values?

Schools see them as signs of rebellion and lack of commitment to education.

What did Willis study?

Willis studied 12 working-class boys (‘the lads’) and their transition from school to work.

What was Willis’ overall argument?

Even resistance to school ultimately reproduces capitalism by preparing working-class boys for manual labour.

What was the lads’ counter-school culture?

The lads rejected school rules, mocked hard-working pupils and valued manual work over academic success.

Why did the lads reject school?

They saw meritocracy as a ‘con’ and believed qualifications would not improve their future.

What are criticisms of Willis’ study?

The sample was small, Willis romanticised the lads, and he focused too heavily on class while ignoring gender and ethnicity.